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Review: A Brief History of Canada in the 20th Century 1914 1915 1916 1918 1919 Britain declared war on Germany on August 4. Canada was automatically drawn into the conflict and the first Canadian troops left for England on October 3. Parliament, under PM Robert Borden passed the War Measures Act which, when imposed, temporarily suspends civil rights during emergencies, allowing the military to take over. Borden imposed it immediately. Canada enters the war in their first battle at Ypres, Belgium on April 22 and face the first recorded chlorine gas attack. The Cunard liner Lusitania was sunk by a German U-boat on May 7. Built by Canadian entrepreneur Sir Samuel Cunard, the Lusitania remains the only Cunard ship to be lost at sea. PM Robert Borden travelled to Europe to speak with Canadian soldiers in hospitals and on the front lines. Colonel John McCrae wrote "In Flanders' Fields". The eastern division of the Grand Trunk Railroad, the National Transcontinental, connected Moncton, New Brunswick, to Winnipeg, Manitoba. The conscription issue began to divide Canada and Borden's Cabinet. PM Borden convinced members of the Liberal and Conservative Parties to unite in a coalition Union Party for the duration of the war. The centre block of the Parliament Buildings in Ottawa, Ontario, were completely destroyed by fire on February 3. Only the domed Library remained relatively unscathed. PM Robert Borden escaped with only minor burns, but his office and all its contents were completely destroyed. The 1'st Canadian Division discovered the unreliability of the Ross rifle. The rifles were withdrawn from service and replaced by British-made Lee-Enfields. Manitoba became the first province in Canada to grant women suffrage. 1917 PM Borden introduced Income Tax as a temporary war-time measure. Also enacted was the Wartime Elections Act PM Borden became a member of the Imperial War Cabinet on February 23, giving Canada a voice in international war policy. Meanwhile, the Military Service Bill was introduced into parliament which lead to a division of French and English Canada in what became known as the Conscription Crisis. The Union Government under Robert Borden, a special coalition of Liberal and Tory governments during wartime, won the election in which all women of British origin were allowed to vote for the first time. However, the War Measures Act prevented anyone of German or other foreign background a vote. During two of the worst battles of World War I, Canadian soldiers captured Vimy Ridge in France on April 9-12 and Passchendaele, Belgium, on November 6. On December 6, a munitions ship in Halifax Harbour exploded, leveling 3.2 square kilometres (2 square miles) of Halifax and killing almost 2,000 people and injuring another 9,000 others. Louise McKinney, in Alberta, became the first female elected to a legislature in the British Commonwealth. Canadian soldiers broke through German lines at Amiens, France, on August 8, beginning "Canada's Hundred Days" World War I ended with the signing of the Armistice on November 11. (Currently celebrated as Remembrance Day.) The Grand Trunk Pacific, the western division of the Grand Trunk Railway, completed a line to connect Winnipeg and Prince Rupert. Meanwhile, the Canadian National Railway was created 1920 1921 1922 1923 1925 1926 as a crown corporation which would buy out and consolidate all of the smaller railway lines into a single transcontinental railway. In order to force the government to recognize unions, the metal and building trades in Winnipeg called a general strike on May 19. The strike expanded with other trades joining the strike, virtually paralyzing Winnipeg, until and armed charged by the RCMP on Bloody Saturday (June 21) killed one worker and injured 30 others. The strike ended on June 26. James Shaver Woodsworth and several others were charged with 'seditious conspiracy'. PM Robert Borden lead the Canadian delegation in the Paris Peace Conference and lead the delegation in the creation of the League of Nations. The first exhibit of the Group of Seven appeared in the Art Gallery of Toronto on May 7 The League of Nations was created and Canada was one of the first countries to join. T. A. Crerar created the Progressive Party in order to obtain low tariffs for western farmers. Red and white were approved by proclamation to be Canada's official colours. Liberal William Lyon Mackenzie King, won the federal election as prime minister. King immediately lowered tariffs for western farmers, but apparently not enough. Western support went to the new Progressive Party. Agnes Macphail became the first female elected to Parliament under the Progressive Party. PM Arthur Meighen signed trade agreements with France and the West Indies and created the Armistice Day Act. The Canadian Northern Railway and the Canadian Transcontinental Railway merged to form the Canadian National Railway. Frederick Banting, Best, MacLeod and Collip shared the Nobel Prize for their discovery of insulin. Foster Hewitt made the first hockey broadcast. The Halibut Treaty was signed between Canada and the United States without the traditional British signature (first time we’d signed a treadty without Britain), showing continued independence. Mackenzie King lead the opposition to a common imperial policy at the Imperial Conference in London. The federal government forbade Chinese immigration on Dominion Day. The day would come to be called 'Humiliation Day' by Chinese-Canadians. Liberal Mackenzie King was re-elected as prime minister after forming an alliance with the Progressive Party. Newfoundland finally gave women the right to vote. Early Canadian environmentalist Grey Owl met and married an Iroquois woman named Gertrude 'Anahareo' Bernard and began a life-long environmental crusade to save the beaver. Little did anyone know that Grey Owl was actually none other than Englishman Archie Stansfield Belaney King-Byng Scandal: The Liberal Party under Mackenzie King was in serious trouble and the Liberals lost a vote of non-confidence. King asked Governor General Viscount Byng to dissolve parliament and to call a new election. Governor General Viscount Byng refused King's request to call a new election. Instead, he asked Opposition Leader Arthur Meighen to form a government. Conservative Arthur Meighen became prime minister by decree of the Governor General. However, 4 days later, King called a vote claiming Meighen's right to govern was unconstitutional. The Conservatives lost the vote and Byng had no choice but to dissolve parliament and call a new election. Mackenzie King was re-elected prime minister. Old Age Pension was created. The Balfour Report defined British dominions as autonomous and equal in status on November 18. 1928 1929 1930 1931 1932 1934 1935 1936 1937 1938 Persons Case: The Supreme Court of Canada ruled that the British North America Act did not define women as 'persons'. This ruling made women ineligible to hold public office. The British Privy Council reversed the Supreme Court decision of 1928 and legally declared women as 'persons under the law' on October 18. The Great Depression began PM Richard Bennett allocated $20 million to aid the unemployed during the depression and initiated preferential tariffs in order to strengthen Canada's trade, but the export market continued to slump. Cairine Wilson became Canada's first female senator. The Statute of Westminster, passed in England on December 11, finally authorized the Balfour Report of 1926. The Statute gave Canada full legislative authority in both internal and external affairs. The Governor General became the official representative of the Crown, relinquishing his/her power only at times when the reigning monarch would be on Canadian soil. The Ottawa Agreements set the stage for preferential trade between Canada and other Commonwealth nations. Meanwhile, James Woodworth was instrumental in forming a democratic socialist party called the Co-Operative Commonwealth Federation (CCF) in Calgary. The Conservative government established Relief Camps, run like military camps, to cope with number of unemployed single men during the depression. The Canadian Radio Broadcast Corporation (later to become the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation, or the CBC) was created. The Bank of Canada was formed. The Dionne quintuplets (world’s first surviving quintuplets) were born, attracting international media attention and becoming over-night celebrities. The On-to-Ottawa trek occurred from June 3 to July 1. Inspired by the Workers' Unity League, over 1,000 unemployed men from all across the western provinces began a mass protest march to Ottawa in order to confront PM Bennett over the atrocities of the Relief Camps. In order to remove a corrupt Liberal administration, Québec Conservative Maurice Duplessis allied with a splinter group of Liberals under Paul Gouin in order to form the Union Nationale. Liberal Mackenzie King re-elected (again) as prime minister. He would be prime minister throughout World War II (1939-1945) Maurice Duplessis managed to oust Gouin from the Union and became Premier of Québec. The Rowell-Sirois Commission was appointed in order to investigate the financial relationships between the federal and provincial governments. Meanwhile, the Trans Canada Air Lines began regular flight services on September 1. Franklin D. Roosevelt became the first President of the United States to make an official visit to Canada. He met with Canadian Prime Minister Mackenzie King in Kingston, Ontario. 1939-1945 Canadian ingenuity flourished throughout the war, having a profound effect on the future of the world: The National Research Council was instrumental in developing radar. The Halifax Naval Base in Nova Scotia was the first military establishment in North America to be protected by radar. The first practical election microscope was built at the University of Toronto. 1939 1940 1941 1942 1943 1944 W. R. Franks invented an anti-G suit which prevented pilots from blacking out on sharp turns or steep dives. The anti-G suits were used exclusively by American fighter pilots in the Pacific after 1942. Peter Webb invented a cold-weather suit which protected downed pilots from the cold oceanic waters. Canada entered World War II on September 10, one week after Britain's declaration of war against Germany. Until then, Canada had remained neutral. Premier Duplessis opposed Québec's participation in the war, but was eventually defeated by the Liberals on October 26. The federal government introduced the Unemployment Insurance Commission. Canada and the United States co-operate to form a Permanent Joint Defence Board. Meanwhile, Canadian parliament passed the highly-controversial National Resources Mobilization Act in June, which would allow conscription (draft) for military service only within Canadian territory in case the war moved to North America. While most provinces were in disagreement, Ottawa adopted several of the financial recommendations of the Rowell-Sirois Commission, especially those recommendations relating to a minimum national standard of service. Québec women won the right to vote. Hong Kong fell to the Japanese and Canadian troops were taken as POW's. Meanwhile, the United States entered the war due to growing Japanese aggressions. Combined, the incidents lead to racial intolerance in Canada. In February, over 22,000 Japanese-Canadians, multi-generational or otherwise, were stripped of all non-portable possessions, listed as security risks and removed to security camps where they remained throughout the war. Many had few (if any) connections to Japan. An amendment of the National Resources Mobilization Act which would allow conscripts to be sent overseas for active duty was passed by a national plebiscite (vote) on April 27. This only lead to the divisions between French and English Canada. Canada's first participation in the European theatre, the Dieppe raid on August 19, was a total disaster. PM Mackenzie King oversaw the construction of the Alaska Highway. Originally known as the 'Alcan Military Highway' and built in response to the threat of a Japanese invasion on the west coast, the highway ran from Dawson Creek, British Columbia and Fairbanks, Alaska, a distance of 2,450 km (1,500 miles). Ten thousand soldiers and 6,000 civilians completed the highway within 8 months, a job that would normally have taken 5 years. Future prime minister John Diefenbaker blocked a Conservative attempt to outlaw the Communist Party. Canadians joined the Allies in the invasion of Sicily on July 10. Later, from December 20 to 28, Canada won the Battle of Ortona, which had been a major German stronghold on the Adriatic Sea. D-Day, June 6. Canadians advanced further than any other allied unit. Later, on July 23, Canada fought as a separate army. The Family Allowance Act was passed in August. The first socialist government in North America was formed when the Co-Operative Commonwealth Federation (CCF) under Tommy Douglas won the provincial election in Saskatchewan. Over one million Canadian women were working full-time. At the age of 10, the Dionne Quintuplets retired from the public spotlight. 1945-1946 Future prime minister Lester B. Pearson was the Canadian Ambassador to the United States, during which time he attended the conference which founded the United Nations. He was also influential in gaining Canada's admittance to NATO (North America Treaty Organization). 1945 1947 1948 1949 1950's 1950 1951 1952 1953 1954 1955 1956 European hostilities drew to a close on May 5. Pacific basin hostilities ended on Sept. 2. The first family allowance cheques ('Baby Bonus') were issued on June 20, guaranteeing a universal monthly stipend to every child in Canada under the age of 16. Canada joined the United Nations on June 26. Canada's first nuclear reactor went on line in Chalk River, Ontario. deHaviland's DHC-2 Beaver, the world's first short takeoff and landing (STOL) plane, began flying. The Beaver, built for the Canadian wilderness, could land and take off on land, water or ice and became Canada's all-time best-selling aircraft and became popular in remote countries around the world. Of the original 1,692 Beavers built, over 1,200 are still in service. Canadian John P. Humphrey was the architect behind the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the United Nations document which proclaimed "equal and inalienable rights of all members of the human family". Joey Smallwood became the last Father of Confederation when Newfoundland became the 10'th and last province of Canada on March 31. Canada joined NATO (North American Treaty Organization). Canada's Supreme Court finally replaced Britain's privy council as the final court of appeal. Research indicated increased levels of acid found in Canadian and Scandinavian lakes due to 'acid rain. Volunteers in the Canadian Army Special Force joined the United Nations forces in the Korean conflict. Canadian census set Canada's population at just over 14 million. The Massey Royal Commission reported that American influences were dominating Canadian cultural life. The commission recommended improving government grants to universities and the establishment of the Canada Council. Canada's first television stations began part-time broadcasting in September in Montreal and Toronto. Future prime minister Lester B. Pearson was President of the United Nations General Assembly, during which time he attempted to resolve the Korean conflict. The National Library was created in Ottawa on January 1. Meanwhile, the Stratford Festival opened on July 13 and the Korean War ended on July 27. Construction began on the St. Laurence Seaway. A brief economic slump interrupted the post-war boom. The Canadian Labour Congress was formed. Hockey fans rioted in Montreal following the suspension of favourite Rocket Richard, March 17. The Pipeline Debate (May 8 to June 6) began with concern over the funding of the natural gas industry. Liberals used 'closure' to limit the debate which ended in controversy over proper parliamentary procedure. This action by the Liberals lead directly to their defeat in the next federal election after 22 years in power. The Suez Crisis rose to a boil as British and French troops entered Egypt in an attempt to gain control over the Suez Canal. When hostilities worsened, future prime minister Lester B. Pearson approached the United Nations and suggested the creation of a multinational peace keeping force which would be installed into the war zone to make certain that cease-fires were maintained and to oversee the withdrawal of any troops as necessary. The United Nations readily agreed to the 1957 1958 1959 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 proposal and the First United Nations Peace-Keeping Force, lead by Canadian troops, entered the Suez and brought it to a successful and peaceful end, effectively preventing what could easily have become yet another world war. Progressive Conservative John Diefenbaker won a minority government on June 10 and appointed Ellen Fairclough as Canada's first female cabinet minister. The Canada Council was formed to encourage uniqueness and to overcome American influences on Canadian culture. (see 1951) Future prime minister Lester B. Pearson won the Nobel Prize for Peace on October 12 after having helped to create the United Nations Peace-Keeping Corps and for successfully resolving the Suez Crisis. PM John Diefenbaker's minority government went on to become the largest majority government ever obtained in a federal election on March 31. The Canadian Bill of Rights was established. James Gladstone became Canada's first Aboriginal senator under appointment by Diefenbaker in an attempt to draw other minorities into the national identity. Despite public outcry and protest, Diefenbaker cancelled the Avro Arrow project (CF-105 aircraft) on February 20. Almost 14,000 Canadians suddenly became unemployed. The St. Lawrence Seaway opened to traffic on June 26, allowing ocean-going ships and tankers to travel inland to both Canadian and American ports on the upper and lower Great Lakes. Joseph-Armand Bombardier placed the world's first personal snow vehicle, the Ski-Doo on the market. (see also 1926 & 1937) Jean Lesage, representing the Liberal party, won the provincial election in Québec on June 22. This effectively began the Quiet Revolution (Revolution Tranquille) in which French-Canadians press the federal government for special status within Confederation. The Canadian Bill of Rights was approved. People of the First Nation (Natives) were finally given the right to vote in federal elections. The New Democratic Party was formed to replace the CCF (Co-Operative Commonwealth Federation). The federal government established the Royal Commission on Health Services and the Agricultural Rehabilitation and Development Act. PM John Diefenbaker fought for human rights outside of Canada by supporting non-white Commonwealth countries in gaining independence. His anti-apartheid speech was instrumental in causing South Africa's withdrawal from the Commonwealth. Socialized medicine was introduced in Saskatchewan on July 1, which would ultimately lead to a strike by doctors. The Trans-Canada Highway opened on September 3. Canada became the third country in space following the successful launch of the Alouette I satellite on September 29. The last execution in Canada took place in Toronto on December 11. The separatist Front de Libéation du Québec (FLQ) set off bombs in Montreal during April and May. (see also 1970) A Royal Commission on Bilingualism and Biculturalism lead to a bilingual civil service throughout Canada. Canadians were issued social insurance cards in April. Meanwhile, Northern Dancer became the first Canadian horse to win the Kentucky Derby. The federal government established the Canada Pension Plan. Canada and the United States signed the Auto Pact in January. Canada inaugurated its new flag (red maple leaf on white with red side bars) on February 15. 1966 The CBC introduced colour broadcasting to Canadian television on October 1. 1967-1968 As Minister of Justice, future prime minister Pierre Elliot Trudeau liberalized the laws concerning abortion and homosexuality. (Paraphrase: 'The government has no business in the bedrooms of the nation.') 1967 - Canada's Centennial The Canadian airforce, army and navy were unified as the Canadian Armed Forces on April 25. Canada became the centre of world attention with the opening of Expo '67 in Montreal on April 27. (Expo '67 remains the most financially successful world exposition to date.) Canadian centennial celebrations officially began on July 1. French president Charles de Gaulle, on a visit to Canada, made a speech in Montreal and proclaimed "Vive le Québec libre" ('Long Live Free Quebec') on July 24. 1968 Pierre Elliot Trudeau succeeded Lester Pearson as Liberal Party Leader and won a majority government in the federal election on June 25. The election itself had an atmosphere of a media circus and Trudeau's popularity was dubbed 'Trudeaumania'. The federal government appointed a Royal Commission on the Status of Women. Meanwhile, Canadian divorce laws were completely reformed. 1969 Both English and French were recognized as official languages by the federal government on July 9 through the Official Languages Act, which guaranteed a bilingual civil service. The breathalizer was first used as a test for drunk drivers on December 1. 1970 The FLQ (Front de Libération de Québec, or the Quebec Liberation Front) kidnapped British trade commissioner James Cross on October 5, leading to the October Crisis. Québec's Minister of Labour and Immigration, Pierre Laporte was kidnapped on October 10. Québec Premier Robert Bourassa petitioned the federal government to invoke the War Measures Act, which PM Pierre Trudeau did on October 16. The FLQ was banned and almost 500 terrorists were arrested. James Cross was rescued, but Pierre Laporte was found murdered in the trunk of a car under what is now named the Pierre Laporte Bridge. As Minister of Justice, future prime minister John Turner ammended the Criminal Code to outlaw hate propoganda. He also appointed Bora Laskin as Canada's first Jewish Justice of the Supreme Court. Acid Rain: Thousands of Canadian lakes were found to be devoid of life. The United States Environmental Protection Agency increased smokestack height regulations which only allowed emissions to travel farther. 1971 A policy of multiculturalism was officially adopted by the federal government. Meanwhile, Gerhard Herzberg of the National Research Council won a Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his research into smog. 1972 Paul Henderson scored the famous goal which won Canada's first hockey challenge against the Soviets. Murial Fergusson was appointed as the first female Speaker of the Senate. 1973 The United States' bombing of North Vietnam was criticized by the House of Commons on January 5. The separatist Parti Québecois became the official opposition in a Québec provincial election. 1974 The Liberals under Pierre Trudeau won another majority government on July 8. 1975 The beaver (castor canadensis) became a symbol of Canadian sovereignty by Royal assent on March 24. 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 The CN Tower in Toronto was completed on April 2 to become the world's tallest freestanding structure. The Foreign Investment Review Agency was created on July 18 to screen foreign investment in Canada. Television cameras were allowed in the House of Commons for the first time, giving most Canadians their first view of the government in action. PM Pierre Trudeau initiated wage and price controls on October 14 in order to fight inflation. Acid Rain: All power plants built in Canada after 1975 must have emission control systems. Future prime minister Joseph 'Joe' Clark became Progressive Conservative Party Leader and set about reuniting the Conservative party which had become badly split over the Diefenbaker years. Clark managed to completely restructure the Party and overhauled the fundraising campaigns. A 200-mile (320-kilometre) coastal fishing zone was announced by the federal government on June 4. Canada abolished the death penalty on July 14. Québec passed Bill 101 on August 26, restricting English schooling to children of parents who had been taught in English schools. 18-year-old Terry Fox, from Port Coquitlam. British Columbia, was diagnosed with cancer. His right leg was amputated just above the knee. Canada entered the metric age when all the highway signs (speed and distance) were changed to the metric system beginning on September 6. The Sun Life Insurance company publicly acknowledged that it had moved its head office from Montreal to Toronto due to Québec's language laws and political instability. Acid Rain: Acid rain was formally recognized as a transborder problem. At only 39 years of age, Progressive Conservative Joseph 'Joe' Clark, won a minority government in the federal election on May 22 and became Canada's youngest Prime Minister. Jeanne Sauvé became Canada's first female Speaker of the House. Canadian ambassador to Iran, Ken Taylor, helped 6 Americans escape from Tehran on January 28, making him an overnight international celebrity. On April 12, Terry Fox dipped his right (prosthetic) foot into the Atlantic Ocean at St. John's, Newfoundland, to begin his Marathon of Hope: a cross-Canada run to raise money for cancer research. On September 1 (Labour Day), after running the equivalent of a marathon a day, Terry made the heart-wrenching announcement from the back of an ambulance in Thunder Bay, Ontario, that the cancer had spread to his lungs. Terry would have to put off the remainder of his Marathon of Hope until later. A referendum in Québec rejected sovereignty association on May 22. O Canada was officially adopted as Canada's national anthem on June 27. Acid Rain: An International Joint Committee between Canada and the United States concluded that acid rain was one of the most serious problems plaguing North America. Ontario began liming its lakes in an attempt to neutralize the acid. Terry Fox died of cancer at the midpoint of his cross-Canada Marathon of Hope on June 28. Terry's efforts raised almost $25 million (Canadian) for cancer research. His 'Marathon of Hope' continues to be an annual event in nations around the world. Terry was only 22 years old. Québec banned all public signs in English on September 23. Except for Québec, the federal government and all provincial governments agreed on a method to repatriate Canada's constitution on November 5. Acid Rain: The Canadian Coalition on Acid Rain became the first Canadian lobby group registered in Washington DC. 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 The government of Québec's demand for a veto over constitutional change was rejected on April 7. Canada gained a new Charter of Rights and Freedoms. Despite opposition by Québec Premier René Lévèques, PM Trudeau managed to patriate Canada's Constitution. The Constitution Act was signed by Queen Elizabeth II during a special ceremony on Parliament Hill in Ottawa, Ontario, on April 17. The worst recession since the Great Depression began. Acid Rain: Canada committed to reducing sulphur emissions by 50% by 1990. The U.S. government announced that more time was needed to do the same thing and began to deregulate prior pollution programs. Pay TV began operation in Canada on February 1. Canadians protested the government's approval of U.S. cruise missile testing in western Canada. Jeanne Sauvé was appointed the first female Governor General of Canada on Dec. 23. Acid Rain: 19,000 Ontario lakes were found to be biologically damaged due to acid rain. Liberal John Turner succeeded prime minister Pierre Trudeau on Trudeau's retirement, June 30. Turner gambled and called a new election but lost the election on September 4. Turner had been prime minister for only 2 months. Marc Garneau became the first Canadian in space when he rode along on the U.S. space shuttle Challenger on October 5. Acid Rain: Canada re-affirmed its pledge to reduce sulphur emissions by 50% and formally requests that the United States do the same. Again, the U.S. requested more time. Inspired by Terry Fox, Rick Hansen began his Man in Motion Tour around-the-world tour, departing from Vancouver, British Columbia on March 21 in a wheelchair The United States challenged Canada's sovereignty over the Arctic by sending the ice-breaker Polar Sea through the Northwest Passage. Canadian Prime Minister Brian Mulroney and U.S. President Ronald Reagan declared mutual support of the orbital Strategic Defense Initiatives (Star Wars) and Free Trade at the Shamrock Summit in Québec City on December 2. The Summit was so named because of both Mulroney's and Reagan's ethnic backgrounds. Expo '86 opened in Vancouver on May 2. (Closed on October 13.) The United States imposed tariffs on some imported Canadian wood products on May 22. Canada adopted sanctions against South Africa for its apartheid policies on August 5. Two years and one day after starting his Man in Motion Tour, paraplegic Rick Hansen arrived in Vancouver, British Columbia on March 22. During his tour, Hansen had wheeled across (or within) every continent except South America and Antarctica. PM Brian Mulroney and the provincial Premiers agreed in principle to the Meech Lake Accord which would bring the province of Québec into Canada's new Constitution on April 20. Canada and the United States reach a Free Trade agreement on October 3, but the agreement still required ratification. Meanwhile, stock prices plummeted throughout the world on October 19. The Supreme Court of Canada ruled that existing legislation against abortion was unconstitutional on January 28. The Winter Olympics in Calgary opened on February 13. During the summer, marathon swimmer Vicki Keith swam across all 5 Great Lakes to raise money for charity, covering a total of 253 kilometres (157 miles) in 160 hours and 22 minutes. Sprinter Ben Johnson set another world record and won the gold medal at the Soeul Olympics in Korea on September 24. However, Johnson tested positive for steroids on September 26 and was stripped of his medal. 1989 Québec's 'French only' sign law was reversed by the Supreme Court of Canada on December 15. However, Qué found a 'loophole' in the Charter of Rights and Freedoms (the 'notwithstanding' clause) and reinstated the law on December 21. As a result, the ratification of the Meech Lake Accord was slowed by Manitoba Premier Gary Filmon. The Free Trade legislation between Canada and the United States was passed by both the House of Commons and the Senate in late December. Acid Rain: Canada and the United States finally met for serious discussions and the United States finally agreed to a significant reduction in sulphur emissions. Free Trade became effective on January 1. Heather Erxleben became Canada's first acknowledged female combat soldier. Canadian one-dollar bills were replaced with the new one-dollar coin, popularly named the 'Loonie' because of the engraving of a loon on the 'tail' side. The University of Montreal Massacre occurred on December 6 when 14 female engineering students were separated from their male colleagues and slaughtered by gunman Marc Lepine who had a vendetta against women. 1990-1993 Following the student nurses massacre in Montreal in 1989, the Criminal Code was amended to call for tighter gun control measures in 1991. 1990 The Meech Lake Accord is slowed further by Newfoundland Premier Clyde Wells. However, the Accord was dealt a final and fatal blow by Elijah Harper, a Native member of the Manitoba legislature, who absolutely refused to recognize Québec as Canada's principal (if not only 'distinct society') on June 22. As a result, the Bloc Québecois was created by a handful of disenchanted French-Canadian politicians on July 25. Despite protests and Liberal stalling, the Senate passed the Conservative's highly-unpopular Goods and Service Tax (GST) in December. 1991 The Goods and Service Tax (GST) became effective on January 1, wreaking havoc with retailers and consumers across the nation. (The GST effectively added a second 'tax' to sales receipts, applying even to the purchase of postage stamps.) Canadian forces joined the Gulf War, a multinational effort to drive Saddam Hussein's Iraqi troops from Kuwait on January 15. A Six Nations man became the first Native to be allowed to make a traditional native oath instead of swearing on the Bible in a Brantford, Ontario courtroom in November. The Tungavik signed an agreement with Ottawa which would allow the creation of a new, quasi-independent Inuit territory in the eastern Arctic regions. (Nunavut) Acid Rain: Canadian Prime Minister Brian Mulroney and U.S. President George Bush signed the Canada/U.S. Air Quality Agreement, requiring the United States to reduce emissions by 40% of the 1980 levels by 2010. The U.S. Clean Air Act was amended and the Canadian Coalition on Acid Rain was disbanded. 1992 Phase One of the James Bay Project, one of the world's biggest hydro-electric projects, was completed, causing one of the worst man-made environmental disasters in Canadian history. Phase Two (Great Whale) was halted when environmentalists and Indian chiefs convinced New York State and Vermont to cancel their contracts to buy hydro from the project and to purchase it from Hydro-Quebec instead. Roberta Bondar became Canada's first female astronaut in space. A national referendum held on October 26 saw Canadians voting 'No' to the Charlottetown Agreement, a second attempt to correct the Canadian Constitution after the failure of the Meech Lake Accord. NAFTA (North American Free Trade Agreement) went into effect. 1993 The Nunavut Settlement Agreement with the Inuit set into motion the plans to divide the Northwest Territories to form a third territory, Nunavut. 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 Kim Campbell replaced Brian Mulroney as the Leader of the Progressive Conservative Party and became Canada's first female Prime Minister in June. Unfortunately for Kim, the Conservative mandate to govern had expired and Kim was obliged to call an election. Conversationalists protesting 'clear-cut logging' blocked loggers' access to ancient forest areas near Clayoquot Sound during July and August. The Progressive Conservative Party was dealt a devastating blow after 9 years in power in the election of October 25. After NAFTA (North American Free Trade Agreement) and the GST (Goods and Service Tax), Canadians were fed up with the Conservatives and they were reduced to only 2 seats in the House of Commons. They now had less than is required to be recognized as an official party. Liberal Jean Chrétien won a landslide victory. The Bloc Québecois under Lucien Bouchard and the Reform Party under Preston Manning only one seat apart in distant second and third. The Inuit of Northern Québec arranged for self-government. The Parti Québecois won a narrow majority in Québec. The government of Newfoundland finally took control of schools from the church. Québec Premier Jacques Parizeau explained the narrow failure of the Québec sovereignty referendum with some very damaging, demeaning and ill-advised remarks against nonfrancophone voters. Parizeau resigned in disgrace and was replaced by Lucien Bouchard. The Québec Cree and Inuit peoples held their own referendum and rejected separation from Canada. The maple leaf was officially proclaimed the national arboreal emblem of Canada on April 25. The government of British Columbia settled a major land-claim agreement with the Nisga'a Nation. The federal government replaced the 2-dollar bill with the new 2-dollar coin in February. The coin was quickly nicknamed 'Toonie' to rhyme with the previous dollar coin, the 'Loonie'. (see 1989) The federal government passed legislation banning discrimination against homosexuals. Acid Rain: The United States had cut sulphur emissions by 26% of 1980 levels. The 13-kilometre (8-mile) Confederation Bridge connecting Prince Edward Island to mainland Canada was opened to traffic. Having to deal with heavy winter ice, the bridge is a marvel of engineering. Tensions rose between Canada and the United States over salmon fishing disputes in the Pacific Northwest. Teachers in Ontario staged a huge walkout to protest the highly-unpopular policies of Premier Mike Harris' government. Acid Rain: Canada had cut sulphur emissions by 54% of 1980 levels. In January, the federal government issued a formal apology to native peoples for past injustices (such as the residential school system in which thousands of young natives were taken from their homes and forced to attend far-away 'English' schools). The Nisga'a treaty fell under controversy when the Nisga'a began to demand some measure of self-government. The new territory of Nunavut was created on April 1, changing the map of Canada for the first time in 20 years Native peoples continued logging in the British Columbia interior in defiance of government authorities. Meanwhile, Natives in the Maritimes continued to fish in despite government warnings. Canadian chief prosecutor for the United Nations Louise Arbour issued an arrest warrant for Yugoslav President Slobodan Milosevic for crimes against humanity in May.