Download Order: Testudines Modern turtles are placed into one of two

Order: Testudines
Modern turtles are placed into one of two suborders within the Testudines -- Peurodira (sidenecked) and Cryptodira (hidden neck). The namesake difference between the two is the method
of head retraction. In pleurodires, the neck vertebrae flex laterally, allowing the neck to bend and
pull the head in sideways. In cryptodires, the neck vertebrae flex vertically, allowing the head to
be drawn straight back within the shell. The Pelomedusidae and Chelidae are the only extant
families of pleurodires. The Carettochelyidae, Cheloniidae, Chelydridae, Dermatemydidae,
Dermochelyidae, Emydidae, Kinosternidae, Testudinidae, and Trionychidae are all cryptodires,
although the ability to retract the head has been lost in the sea turtles (Cheloniidae and
Dermochelyidae).
Family: Chelydridae (snapping turtles)
The members of this family are united in having very large heads and limbs that cannot be fully
retracted within the shell. The jaws are very strong (hence, the name), and the upper jaw is
hooked. The tails are long.
Habitat
Snapping turtles only live in fresh or brackish water. They prefer water bodies with muddy
bottoms and abundant vegetation because concealment is easier. Temperate and freshwater
habitats.
Physical Description
Mass
4 to 16 kg
(8.8 to 35.2 lbs)
Length
20 to 45 cm
(7.87 to 17.72 in)
The snapping turtle normally has a shell length ranging from 8 -18 1/2"and has a tail nearly as
long as the shell. The tail has saw-toothed keels on it. The shell ranges in color from dark brown
to tan and can even be black in some individuals. Snapping turtles have characteristic tubercles
on their necks and legs. Plastrons of snapping turtles are very small and leave much of the
extremities exposed. Snapping turtle necks, legs, and tails have a yellowish color and the head is
dark in color.
Reproduction
Mating takes place from April to November. In the mating process, the male positions himself on top of
the female's shell by grasping the shell with his claws. He then curves his tail until his vent contacts the
female's vent. Fertilization takes place at this time. After the eggs have developed sufficiently in the
female, she excavates a hole, normally in sandy soil, and lays as many as 83 eggs. The eggs take 9 to 18
weeks to hatch depending on the weather. Interestingly, female snapping turtles sometimes store sperm
for several years. Sperm storage allows individuals to mate at any time of the year independent of female
ovulation, and it also allows females to lay eggs every season without needing to mate.
Lifespan/Longevity
A snapping turtle kept at a zoo lived to be almost 39 years old. In the wild it is estimated that
they live up to 30 years. Snapping turtles are most vulnerable as hatchlings. Once they reach a
certain size there are few natural predators of snapping turtles, though they are often hit by cars
when searching for new ponds or nesting sites.
Behavior
Snapping turtles are not social creatures. Social interactions are limited to aggressive interactions
between individuals, usually males. Many individuals can be found within a small range;
snapping turtle density is normally related to the amount of available food. Snapping turtles can
be very vicious when removed from the water, but they become docile when placed back into the
water. Snapping turtles sometimes bury themselves in mud with only their nostrils and eyes
exposed. This burying behavior is used as a means of ambushing prey. Key behaviors: diurnal
,motile, solitary, territorial
Communication and Perception
Snapping turtles communicate to mates with leg movements while the turtles face each other.
Snapping turtles also use their sense of smell, vision, and touch to detect prey. They may sense
vibrations in the water.
Food Habits
Snapping turtles will eat nearly anything that they can get their jaws around. They feed on
carrion, invertebrates, fish, birds, small mammals, amphibians, and a surprisingly large amount
of aquatic vegetation. Snapping turtles kill other turtles by decapitation. This behavior might be
territoriality towards other turtles or a very inefficient feeding behavior.
Predation
Known predators
•
great blue herons (Ardea herodias)
•
raccoons (Procyon lotor)
•
striped skunks (Mephitis mephits)
•
red foxes (Vulpes vulpes)
•
largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides)
•
bullfrogs (Rana catesbeiana)
•
northern water snakes (Nerodia sipedon)
•
American crows (Corvus brachyrhynchos)
The eggs and hatchlings of snapping turtles may be eaten by other large turtles, great blue
herons, crows, raccoons, skunks, foxes, bullfrogs, water snakes, and large predatory fish, such as
largemouth bass. However, once snapping turtles become larger, there are few animals that prey
on them. Snapping turtles are highly aggressive and will fight back ferociously.
Economic Importance for Humans: Negative
Snapping turtles consume the young of some game fish. The impact of snapping turtles on these
populations is minimal. Snapping turtles are known to kill young and adult ducks and geese, but
once again the effects are minimal.
Ways that these animals might be a problem for humans:
injures humans (bites or stings).
Economic Importance for Humans: Positive
Snapping turtles are used by many people in turtle stews and soups. Snapping turtle shells were
used in many ceremonies among Native Americans. The shells were dried and mounted on
handles with corn kernels inside for use as rattles.
Conservation Status
Snapping turtle populations are not close to extinction or even threatened. Habitat destruction
could pose a danger to snapping turtle populations at a later time. Some individuals are killed for
food which does impact the population, but in a very minor way.
Family: Kinosternidae (musk and mud)
These turtles release a malodorous musk when disturbed, hence the common name. They have
long necks and strong jaws. They can be taken as pets.
The family Kinosternidae contains 22-23 species within either
three or four genera, depending on the source. There are two
subfamilies, the Staurotypinae and the Kinosterninae, each of
which have two genera. The genera of the Staurotypinae,
Claudius and Staurotypus, are endemic to central Mexico and
range south into northern Central America. The Kinosterninae
genera, consisting of Kinosternon and Sternotherus, range more widely, occurring from southern
Canada through much of South America. Kinosternids inhabit slow-moving bodies of water,
often with soft bottoms and abundant vegetation.
Members of this family are variable in size, with some species of Kinosternon growing to
carapace lengths of less than 15cm and those of Staurotypus growing to nearly 38cm. The shell
is oval in shape, and ranges from dusky yellow to black in color. The carapace may or may not
possess keels. The plastron is often reduced and cruciform in shape and may be hinged. Musk
glands are found on the bridge of the shell. Skeletal features diagnostic of this group include the
following: (1) There are ten pairs of peripheral bones. (2) The acetabulum possesses an ilioischial notch. (3) The frontal bone does not contact the orbit.
All members of the family are carnivores, feeding on crustaceans, aquatic insects, mollusks,
annelids, amphibians, and small fish. Predation occurs most often on eggs and juveniles by
vertebrates of all classes. Adults are more seldom predated, although some mammals (e.g.,
raccoons) and alligators are known predators.
Depending on regional climates, Kinosternids may be active all year or seasonally active. Both
aestivation and hibernation are found among the members of the family. Females lay one to
several clutches of < 11 eggs per season, with an average clutch size of five eggs. Sex
determination is dependent on incubation temperature in all but Staurotypus, which has an XXXY sex chromosome system.
Family: Emydidae (box, pond, and marsh turtles)
Emydidae is the largest and most diverse turtle family.
The family Emydidae includes approximately 95 species in 33 genera. Members are distributed
throughout North America, northern South America, Europe,
northwestern Africa, and Asia. Emydids are primarily
freshwater species.
Emydids are the principle turtles sold through the pet trade.
Genus: Terrapene
Geographic Range
Exclusively North American, box turtles are found in the eastern United States, ranging from
southern Maine to Florida along the East Coast, and west to Michigan, Illinois, eastern Kansas,
Oklahoma, and Texas. Due to its popularity as a household pet, Terrapene carolina is sometimes
found far outside its normal geographic range.
Habitat
Terrapene carolina inhabits open woodlands, pastures, and marshy meadows. It is often found
near streams and ponds. temperate
Physical Description
Length
11 to 18 cm
(4.33 to 7.09 in)
All Terrapene carolina have a bridgeless, bilobed, hinged plastron (ventral part of shell) that
allows box turtles to close their shells almost completely. They have a steep margined, keeled,
high-domed, rounded carapace (dorsal part of shell) with variable markings. Concentric growth
furrows can be seen on the carapace, although in some older individuals they become very
difficult to see. The upper jaw is slightly hooked. The toes are only slightly webbed.
Males are slightly larger on average, the posterior lobe of their plastron is concave, and the claws
on their hind legs are short, thick, and curved. Males also have thicker and longer tails. Females'
rear claws are longer, straighter, and more slender, and the posterior lobe of their plastron is flat
or slightly convex. Length: 11-18 cm
Development
Terrapene carolina exhibit temperature dependent sex determination. Nests that are 22-27
degrees C tend to be males, and those above 28 degrees tend to be female. Terrapene carolina
are well developed at birth (precocial) and grow at a rate of about 1.5 cm per year during the first
five years, at which time they reach sexual maturity. Growth slows down considerably after that
but has been reported to continue for at least over 20 years.
Reproduction
Number of offspring
3 to 8; avg. 4.50
Age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female)
5 years (high)
Age at sexual or reproductive maturity (male)
5 years (high)
The mating season begins in the spring and continues throughout summer to about October.
Males may mate with more than one female, or the same female several times over a period of
several years. A female may lay fertile eggs for up to four years after one successful mating.
Nesting occurs from May through July.
Lifespan/Longevity: Terrapene carolina can live over 100
years.
Behavior
Environmental temperature determines the activity rate of
these turtles. Preferred body temperature is between 29 and 38
degrees Celcius.
In the heat of the summer, Terrapene carolina largely restricts their activity to mornings and
after rain. When it gets too hot, they hide under decaying logs and leaves, crawl into mammal
burrows, or in mud. When it is very hot, they go into shady pools and puddles to cool off.
In the spring and fall, they may be out foraging during all daylight hours, and they sometimes
bask in the sun to get warm. Terrapene carolina are diurnal and scoop out a shallow indentation
in which to spend the night.
In the northern regions, Terrapene carolina go into hibernation in October or November, but
further south, they remain active later in the year. To hibernate, they burrow as much as two feet
deep into loose earth, mud, stream bottoms, old stump holes, or mammal burrows. They may
return to the same place to hibernate in successive years and sometimes more than one turtle
hibernates in the same hibernacula. They usually emerge from hibernation in April. They
sometimes wake up and find a new hibernacula on warm days in the winter.
When frightened, box turtles retract their head, tail, and limbs into their shell and clamp it shut.
Food Habits
Omnivorous, Terrapene carolina eats snails, insects, berries, fungi, slugs, worms, roots, flowers,
fish, frogs, salamanders, snakes, birds, and eggs indiscriminately. They have been observed
eating carrion, feeding on dead ducks, amphibians, assorted small mammals, and even a dead
cow. Their preference varies greatly by season but there is one definite trend. Young are
primarily carnivorous while they grow during their first 5-6 years. Adults tend to be mostly
herbivorous, but they eat no green leaves.
Predation
While juveniles have several predators, very few species can prey effectively on adults due to
their ability to close their shells.
Ecosystem Roles
This species eats a wide variety of animals, so may effect various prey populations. Also, box
turtles may disperse seeds as they eat berries of different kinds of plants.
Economic Importance for Humans: Negative
Box turtles eat some fungi that are poisonous to people. Therefore, box turtles may be dangerous
to eat dif they have the poisons from the fungi in them. Box turltes sometimes cause damage to
tomato, lettuce, cucumber, cantaloupe, and strawberry crops. They sometimes destroy the eggs
of ground-nesting birds. Also they may carry the western equine encephalitis virus in their blood.
Economic Importance for Humans: Positive
Box turtles are very popular as pets, and they may serve the ecological role of a seed distributor
through their eating of berries that contain seeds. They also eat some injurious insects. The
Iroquois and other Native Americans used them for food, medical, ceremonial, burial, and
hunting purposes.
Other Comments
Box turtles are often mistaken for tortoises, but they are indeed more closely related to turtles.
Box turtles are most famous for their hinged shell, which allows them to retract almost
completely into their bony armor to hide from danger. This shell has great regernerative powers.
A case was reported in which the carapace of a badly burned box turtle underwent complete
regeneration.
Genus: Malaclemys
Geographic Range
Malaclemys terrapin occurs along parts of the eastern coast of the United States from as far north
as Cape Cod, Massachusetts, to the southernmost Florida Keys. The turtles are also abundant in
the Gulf Coast, from Florida to Texas.
Habitat
Diamondback terrapins inhabit saltwater habitats,
brackish channels, lagoons, tidal flats, marshes,
areas, and coastlines. They particularly favor reedy
and while they live near saltwater, they require
for drinking purposes
including
estuarine
marshes,
fresh water
Physical Description
A grayish to nearly black carapace usually has spots or streaks of black on gray skin, making
Malaclemys terrapin one of the darkest turtle species.
Reproduction
While all turtles reproduce by eggs, the genus Malaclemys usually does not produce more than 48 eggs in a clutch. Females typically nest several times annually. The duration of incubation
varies between 60 and 85 days, depending on soil temperature and nest depth. During April and
May, the female digs a nest cavity 4-8 inches deep in sand. The oval eggs are 1 * inches long,
pinkish-white, and covered with leathery shells. Interestingly, the sex ratio appears to favor
females. In a sample of 1,433 individuals, females outnumbered males nearly six to one.
Behavior
In the wild, these wary turtles are quick to flee and difficult to observe. It may be possible to
observe them basking on or walking between oyster beds and mudflats. Though mild mannered,
they are excellent swimmers and will head for water if approached (motile)
Food Habits
Malaclemys terrapin eat snails, other mollusks, crustaceans, fish, insects, and carrion. They use
the ridges in their jaw to crush their prey. Therefore, M. terrapin will only eat the soft-shelled
mollusks and crustaceans
Conservation Status
In the past, Malaclemys sp. were often considered a delicacy because of the sweet meat. These
turtles were almost brought to extinction in the early years of the present century. They were
either relentlessly hunted for their flesh or died of drowning in underwater crab traps. The group
suffered worse than the snapping turtles of family Chelydridae, but has since recovered in
numbers
Currently, seaside development has led to the loss of nesting beaches. Tire tracks from vehicles
used on the sand pose a hazard to hatchlings. The tiny turtles get trapped in the tire tracks and die
of dehydration before reaching water. To prevent extinction, however, diamondbacks are
protected in several states. (beachgrass also)
Genus: Graptemys
Geographic Range
The Common map turtle inhabits an area from southern Quebec and northwestern Vermont
where it lives in the St. Lawrence drainage. Its range extends west through the Great Lakes and
into southern Wisconsin and eastern Minnesota, west of the Appalachians, south to Kansas,
northeastern Oklahoma, Arkansas, Tennessee, Alabama and then northwestern Georgia. It also
occurs in the Susquehanna River system located in Pennsylvania and Maryland and also in the
Delaware River
Habitat
Common map turtles inhabit ponds, riverbottoms and lakes. The abundance of aquatic
vegetation is preferred. They prefer large
bodies of water and areas with fallen trees
and other debris for basking.
Physical Description
Common map turtles get their name from the markings on the carapace. The light markings
resemble waterways on a map or chart (Conant and Collins 1998). The lines on the carapace are
a shade of yellow or orange and are surrounded by dark borders.
Reproduction
Common map turtles breed in the spring and the fall. Most mating takes place in deep waters.
The nesting period lasts from May to July. Unshaded sites with sandy soil is highly preferred.
The sexes of the young are determined by the temperature. 25°C incubation will give majority of
males whereas 30-35°C will yield more females
Behavior
The common map turtle is dormant from November through early April. Most of that time is
spent under the water, wedged beneath submerged logs, in the bottom mud of a lake or in a
burrow. They are avid baskers and they bask in groups. They are diurnal. They are also a very
wary animal, at the slightest hint of danger they slip into the water and hide
Food Habits: Common map turtles are omnivores (feed in water; snails, mollusks)
Conservation Status
Common map turtles are less tolerant to poor conditions than most other turtles. Humans are
hurting the turtles by numerous methods. Pollution, waterfront development is destroying their
breeding sites, and automobiles are also a killer of these turtles when they are migrating to the
breeding sites. Fishing also has a negative affect on them, they get caught on the fishing hooks.
Genus: Chrysemys
(picta) painted turtle:
Geographic Range
Painted turtles are the most common turtles and widely distributed in North America and are
found from southern Canada to northern Mexico. frequently studied
Habitat
Painted turtles prefer living in freshwater that is quiet, shallow, and has a thick layer of mud.
Physical Description
Painted turtles are brightly marked. They have a smooth
shell about 90
to 250 mm long. Their shell acts as protection, but since
the ribs are
fused to the shell, the turtle cannot expand its chest to
breathe
but
must force air in and out of the lungs by alternately
contracting the
flank and shoulder muscles. The painted turtle has a
relatively flat
upper shell with red and yellow markings on a black or greenish brown background. Turtles
continue to grow slowly after maturity, and this species may live for many decades.
Development
The sex of the turtle is determined during a critical phase of embryogenesis according to the
incubation temperature. These temperature-dependent reptiles lack sex chromosomes. Low
temperatures during incubation produce males and high temperatures produce females. The
availability of water in the nests is more important than temperature in influencing survival,
metabolism, and growth of the embryos.
Reproduction
Mating begins after hibernation and before feeding begins when the water temperatures are still
low. In the early summer females lay 4 to 15 oval, soft-shelled eggs, in a flask-shaped hole. The
young hatch and dig out of the nest on their own, they are independent immediately.
Lifespan/Longevity
Painted turtles may live as long as 35 to 40 years, but most will not survive for this long.
Behavior
Painted turtles bask in large groups on logs, fallen trees, and other objects. The sunning helps rid
them of parasitic leeches. In many areas turtles hibernate during the winter months by burrowing
into the mud and allowing their bodies to become very cold. Because of their small body size,
they can move easily. Turtles dive quickly at the first hint of danger. Painted turtles are diurnal
(day)
Communication and Perception
Sound perception is poor in turtles, but they do have a good sense of smell and color vision.
They use touch to communicate with each other, particularly during mating.
Food Habits
Painted turtles feed mainly on plants, small animals, such as fish, aquatic insects, and some
carrion. Young painted turtles are mainly carnivorous, acquiring a taste for plants later in life.
Because they have no teeth, the turtle jaw has tough, horny plates for gripping food. Painted
turtles must eat in the water, their tongue does not move freely and they cannot manipulate food
well on land.
Predation
A variety of predators will capture painted turtles. raccoons, otters, mink, foxes will prey on
turtles and their eggs. Painted turtles are vigilant and seek refuge in the water at the slightest sign
of danger, they can also retract their head and legs into the protection of their shell.
Ecosystem Roles
Painted turtles are important predators of small fish, crustaceans, and other invertebrates in
aquatic ecosystems of North America.
Economic Importance for Humans: Negative
As with many other reptile species, this species frequently has bacteria living naturally in its guts
that can be harmful to humans . In particular, these turtles can be source of Salmonella. This is
why it is illegal to sell small turtles as pets in the United States. Anyone keeping and handling
turtles should be careful to maintain hygienic methods and wash their hands after handling.
Economic Importance for Humans: Positive
Painted turtles are often used for educational purposes, they make excellent pets with proper
care.
Trachemys scripta (common slider):
Geographic Range
Pond sliders are native to the Nearctic and Neotropical regions. They are found from the
southern Great Lakes region east to West Virginia, west to Indiana and Illinois and south
throughout most of the southeastern and south-central United States. The range of pond sliders
continues through Mexico and Central America to Venezuela in South America.
Habitat
Pond sliders prefer quiet, soft, muddy bottomed waters with suitable basking spots. They are
faithful to their home ranges, leaving only to nest or hibernate
There are three subspecies of pond slider in the United States. Trachemys scripta elegans (redeared slider) gets its name from the broad reddish or orange stripe behind each eye. Trachemys
scripta scripta (yellow-bellied slider) has a yellow blotch behind each eye which may join the
neck stripe, but is usually only evident in juveniles and females. rachemys scripta troostii
(Cumberland turtle) has a narrower orange-yellow stripe
behind each eye. They range in total length from 12.5 to
28.9 cm. Some key physical features: ectothermic,
heterothermic, bilateral symmetry
Development
Pond slider eggs that are incubated at temperatures between
22 and 27 degrees Celsius become only males, while eggs
that are incubated at warmer temperatures become females.
Baby sliders come out of the egg looking like small adults.
Reproduction
Breeding interval
A female may have 1 to 3 clutches in a season, with second clutches laid in July or August.
Male pond sliders have a unique courtship dance that they engage in anywhere between the
months of March and July. Males will approach a female from the front, stretch out their front
feet and vibrate their long claws on the female's head and neck. Some may even bite the female.
The female usually continues to swim forward while the male does this and, if receptive, will
eventually stop and sink to the bottom. The male will then grip the female's carapace with all
four claws and arrange himself on top of her. He will then bend his tail under hers, let go of his
front arms, and take an almost vertical position. From this position mating occurs, and lasts about
15 minutes.
Lifespan/Longevity
Like most turtles, pond sliders can live for a long time. They have been known to live for 42
years in the wild, though most don't live past 30 years. Most red-eared sliders probably die when
they are hatchlings.
Behavior
Pond sliders enjoy basking on logs, rocks, or stumps near the water. Pond sliders are often
observed in large groups mainly because of their aggregation on limited numbers of basking
sites. Sometimes you can see sliders stacked on top of each other three high. The name "slider"
refers to the quick retreat from their basking site into the water when they feel even the slightest
bit threatened. Sliders will sleep at night underwater, usually resting on the bottom or floating on
the surface, using their inflated throat as a flotation aid. Sliders become inactive at temperatures
below 10°C. They will often hibernate underwater or under banks and hollow stumps.
Emergence occurs in early March to late April.
Communication and Perception
Pond sliders communicate with touch and vibrations. They also have a good sense of vision.
Food Habits
Young pond sliders tend to be more carnivorous than adults, eating about 70% animal matter and
30% plant matter. Adults eat 90% plant matter and 10% animal matter. Feeding occurs under
water, usually in the early morning or late afternoon
Predation
Pond slider eggs and hatchlings are preyed on by raccoons, skunks
opossums, foxes and other predators. They are relatively safe from
predators once they reach adult size and while they are in the water.
most
Ecosystem Roles
Pond sliders help to control populations of the animals that they consume and affect aquatic
vegetation as they graze. Young pond sliders are an important food source for large, aquatic
predators.
Economic Importance for Humans: Positive
Pond sliders fill an important niche in their wetland habitats, and are appealing to most people.
Pond sliders have unfortunately been heavily exploited by humans for both the commercial pet
trade and for food purposes.
Conservation Status
Pond sliders, especially red-eared sliders, have been heavily collected for the pet trade and are
sold by the millions in pet shops across the world. Because of unsanitary conditions and a lack of
knowledge on turtle care, few survive for long in captivity.
Pseudemys rubriventris American red-bellied turtle
Geographic Range
The range of Pseudemys rubriventris spans the Mid-Atlantic coastal waters of the USA from
New Jersey to North Carolina. This includes areas east to the Potomac River and west to W.
Virginia. There is a disjunctive population of eastern red-bellied turtles in Massachusetts
Habitat
Eastern red-bellied turtles inhabit large freshwater lakes, rivers, ponds, and creeks. Most of these
waters are fast moving, deep-bodied, and contain a muddy bottom where the water depth ranges
from 2-3.5 m.
Physical Description
The carapaces of adult red-bellied turtles are on average 26 to 32 cm in length. The carapace is a
mahogany black color with red lines running dorso-ventrally. They have a serrated front upperjaw. The head is brown and arrow-shaped with a yellow line that extends between the eyes and
snout. This species exhibits sexual dimorphism. The plastrons of male red-bellied turtles are light
pink. They have long, straight claws on their feet and an anal opening that extends beyond the
shell. The females are larger than the males with brighter red plastrons containing gray borders.
Development
Psuedemys rubriventris lay eggs under 10 cm of sand. The young emerge as hatchlings after 73
to 80 days and quickly make their way to the nearest water source, where they will develop into
adults.
Reproduction
The mating of P. rubriventris has never been observed. Scientists know mating does occur in
shallow water in the fall or spring. With regards to a closely related species, the male pursues the
female and sniffs her tail after the female releases a pheromone. In the following mating ritual,
he then swims above and in front of her in the water and rapidly strokes her face with his claws.
If a female accepts his advances, the male then swims behind the female, mounting her for
copulation.
Lifespan/Longevity
The lifespan of P. rubriventris ranges from 40 to 55 years.
Food Habits
Red-bellied turtles primarily eat aquatic vegetation and algae such as Myriophyllum, Utricularia,
and Sagittaria. Secondary food sources include crayfish, snails, fish, and tadpoles. Juveniles are
herbivorous and adults are omnivorous.
Predation
Common predators include raccoons,
skunks, crows, herons, and bullfrogs.
Lawn mowers frequently kill turtles
resting in grass. Housing developments
around rivers and ponds result in loss of
nesting sights. Crows, rats, and mice eat the hatchlings and eggs. Red-bellied turtles escape
predators by burying themselves in the mud, swimming aggressively, or by withdrawing into
their shells.
Economic Importance for Humans: Positive
Red-bellied turtles were economically important to humans in the colonial times as a source of
food and trade. Today, their shells make decorative art. also help control the population of
hyacinth, an invasive aquatic plant.
Conservation Status
Red-bellied turtles are considered endangered according to the Endangered Species Act of 1973.
Genus: Pseudemys
The river cooter occurs in the east and southeast part of the United States. The range covers an
area from eastern Virginia south to Florida, west to eastern Texas, north to southeast Nebraska,
and east back to the origin. Isolated populations can be found in neighboring states.
Habitat
The river cooter is primarily a river turtle, but can be found in ditches and saltwater areas near
river mouths. Rivers with slow to moderate currents, abundant aquatic vegetation, and rocky
bottoms are preferred.
Physical Description
Adult river cooters average 9 to 12 inches (carapace length). The head and neck have numerous
thin, yellow stripes. The olive or brown colored carapace is often highlighted with lighter
markings and slightly flared posteriorly. Carapace scutes are usually with well-developed
concentric rings. A distinguishing characteristic is the faint "C" shaped marking visible on the
second costal scute. Females are typically larger and more domed than males
Reproduction
The river cooter usually mates in the spring. The eggs are pink to white in color and ellipsoidal
in shape, bearing many fine nodules. Clutches range from 9 to 29 eggs, although 19 to 20
eggs/clutch are most common. Most hatchlings emerge from the nest in August or September
after an incubation period of 80-150 days, dependent on soil temperatures.
Behavior
The river cooter is active from April to October over most of its range, but some remain active
all year in Florida and the lower Gulf Coastal Plain streams. Winter months are spent in the mud
or on the bottom of some body of water. Most activity is diurnal. The river cooter is a shy
species, leaving the water only to bask or nest, and will return to the water at the first indication
of danger.
Food Habits
The river cooter is primarily herbivorous, although specimens of all ages will consume animal
foods. Preferred plants include eelgrass, elodea, and various algae. Animal foods include
crayfish, tadpoles, small fish, snails, and many small
insects. In saltwater habitats, this species feeds largely on
turtle
grass
Economic Importance for Humans: Positive
Humans sometimes consume river cooters as food. They
also a useful biological control of water hyacinth in some
locations
are
Conservation Status
Although still locally abundant, the river cooter has been greatly reduced in numbers throughout
its range. This species is now listed as endangered in Illinois and threatened in Florida. While
nest and hatchling predation can reduce population size, human activity appears to have the
greatest detrimental impact. Adults are eaten, crushed by automobiles, and driven from their
habitats by pollution.
Genus: Clemmys
bog turtle
Geographic Range
Bog turtles occupy a highly discontinuous and fragmented range in the eastern United States of
America; within this range they tend occur in small, often widely separated colonies.
Habitat
Bog turtles are a highly specialized species that occupies a relatively narrow range of shallow
and rather ephemeral wetland types, from sea level up to 1300 meters elevation. They occur in
saturated, usually spring-fed wetlands such as bogs, fens, wet meadows, sedge marshes, and
alder, tamarack, or spruce swamps.
Physical Description
This is the smallest emydid turtle, and one of the smallest turtles in the world. Adult carapace
length is 7.9 to 11.4 cm
Reproduction
Mating occurs in spring (March to May). The large bright head blotches undoubtedly serve in
species recognition. Courtship can involve much nudging and biting of the female's head, legs,
and shell by the male. While mounted, the male may thump the female's shell with his plastron, a
behavior common in related wood turtles. From one to six eggs are deposited, and a single yearly
clutch appears to be the norm.
Lifespan/Longevity
Potential lifespan is unknown but certainly meets or surpasses the 40 years known for a captive
specimen.
Behavior
This is primarily a diurnal species, though nocturnal activity (such as nesting) has been reported.
On cool days Bog Turtles spend much time basking in the sun, from the surface of shallow
waterways or on sedge or grass tussocks, but during hot weather they tend to be inactive and may
estivate under vegetation or in burrows in sphagnum moss substrate. In winter they hibernate in
mud or vegetation beneath the shallow waters and rivulets or in their submerged burrows. some
are territorial
Food Habits
Bog turtles are omnivorous, and consume food both in and out of water. They eat mainly small
invertebrates (insects, slugs, snails, crustaceans, worms, etc.) along with seeds, berries, and green
vegetation.
Predation
Bog turtles are vulnerable to a host of natural predators because of their small size, even as
adults.
Economic Importance for Humans: Positive
Bog turtles undoubtedly consume quantities of pest insects and larvae, but are most valuable as a
unique evolutionary entity and a noteworthy element of our wildlife resources. They are a
"flagship" species representing a biologically diverse, but rare,
fragile, and endangered habitat. These turtles are small, colorful,
and visually appealing, which has led to an unfortunate demand
in the commercial pet trade.
Conservation Status
The fragile saturated wetlands required by bog turtles may have
been most abundant in an earlier post-glacial stage, and the species may have once been quite
abundant and widespread in eastern North America. Bog turtles have been, and remain, popular
in the commercial pet trade, due to their small size and unique coloration. Like many turtle
species, bog turtles have a life history strategy that balances low fecundity, high egg and
hatchling mortality, and relatively late maturity, with the potential long reproductive lifespan of
the adults.
spotted turtle
Geographic Range
The range of Clemmys guttata is roughly divided into two possibly discontinuous portions of
eastern North America; the first extends along the eastern seaboard The second (Great Lakes)
portion of the range extends from northeastern Illinois into the western and southern Lower
Peninsula of Michigan, northern Indiana, Ohio and western Pennsylvania, and across extreme
southern Ontario into western New York.
Habitat
Spotted Turtles prefer shallow waters with a soft bottom substrate and some submergent and
emergent vegetation. These turtles also frequently wander on land between wetlands. (forest)
Physical Description
Clemmys guttata is a very small species. head is mostly black, with a variable number of yellow
spots
Reproduction
Spotted Turtles probably reach sexual maturity at an age of 7 to 14 years, Courtship and mating
activity begins soon after emergence from winter dormancy; Spotted Turtle courtship at a water
temperature of 8.5°C, while Ontario turtles were courting at a temperature of 2°C (Litzgus and
Brooks, 2000). Male Spotted Turtles may fight each other, presumably over access to females.
Courtship involves the male chasing the female under water while nipping and biting her legs
and carapace; he then mounts her shell and bites at her head and neck. Nesting can occur from
late May through June. Females typically lay only one clutch of from 1 to 8 eggs per year
Behavior
Spotted Turtles become active very early in the spring, and (as noted above) are often active at
relatively cold water temperatures. Activity appears to peak during April and May in the
northern part of the range. Spotted Turtles tend to become inactive in the warmest part of the
summer (when water temperatures exceed 30°C) and they may aestivate aquatically or
terrestrially for long periods of time. During summer dormancy, the turtles may burrow into leaf
litter in woodlands or open fields or marsh edges; others remain in muskrat burrows or other
aquatic refuges
Food Habits
Spotted Turtles eat a variety of plant and animal foods, which are consumed in the water.
Feeding does not begin in spring until water temperatures reach about 15°C
Economic Importance for Humans: Positive
Clemmys guttata occupies a rather specialized ecological niche in habitats that are comparatively
rare and biologically diverse. This small, brightly colored turtle is aesthetically appealing to
humans, which unfortunately has resulted in a high demand for them in the commercial pet trade
Conservation Status
The specialized wetland habitats used by Spotted Turtles
have been widely drained and converted by humans into
agricultural and residential land, or modified into more
open aquatic habitats not favored Spotted Turtles. Many of the remaining Spotted turtle
populations are now very small and isolated, with little or no opportunities for genetic exchange
with other sites
wood turtle
Geographic Range
Clemmys insculpta occurs in a relatively small area of eastern Canada and the northeastern
United States
Habitat
Clemmys insculpta is almost invariably found in association with moving water (streams, creeks,
or rivers), although individuals in some populations may wander considerable distances away
from water, especially in the warmer months. Females may be more terrestrial than males in
some populations. Streams with sand or sand and gravel bottoms are preferred, but rocky stream
courses are sometimes used, especially in the north-eastern portion of the range. Wood turtles are
often described as a woodland species, but in some places they appear to thrive in a mosaic
habitat of riparian woods, shrub or berry thickets, swamps, and open, grassy areas.
The head of the Wood Turtle is black, occasionally with light dots or other markings; the scales
on the upper legs are black to mottled brown, while the skin on the throat, lower neck, and on the
lower surfaces of the legs can be yellow, orange, or orange-red to salmon-red, sometimes
speckled with darker pigment. This skin color varies between localities
Reproduction
Male wood turtles form dominance hierarchies in the wild, and will often aggressively attack
other males; females also exhibit aggressive behavior, which can be directed both toward males
and other females. Older, larger males tend to be dominant over smaller individuals, and also
have better success in fertilizing eggs. Courtship may include a mating "dance" in which the
male and female face each other and swing their heads back and forth. Most wood turtle eggs
never hatch; nest predation by raccoons, skunks, shrews, foxes, and other predators can typically
result in high losses, sometimes approaching the entire year's reproductive effort for a turtle
population when predator numbers are high. In this species, the sex of the hatchling is
independent of incubation temperature, a departure from the trend in closely related emydid
species
Behavior
Wood Turtles are diurnal animals and spend much of their active time basking, whether on
emergent logs and other debris along or over waterways, or on land, while hidden in grass or
shrub thickets. As a species they are well adapted for the cool-temperate climate found
throughout much of their range, and individual turtles can obtain body temperatures well above
the air temperature by carefully orienting their shells towards the sun while maintaining a low
profile out of the wind. Basking not only facilitates thermoregulation, but also allows vitamin D
synthesis, and undoubtedly helps dislodge external parasites such as leeches. Wood Turtles
hibernate in winter (October through April in northern Michigan), generally on the bottom in the
shallows of streams and rivers where the water will not freeze. Wood Turtles are physically quite
agile and reportedly are unusually intelligent (for turtles).
Food Habits
Clemmys insculpta is an omnivorous species that can feed both in or out of water. Natural foods
reported for the species include leaves and flowers of various herbaceous and woody plants
(violet, strawberry, raspberry, willow), fruits (berries), fungi, slugs, snails, worms, and insects.
They are usually slow, deliberate feeders, and seem incapable of capturing fish or other fastmoving prey (eat worms too)
Economic Importance for Humans: Positive
Wood Turtles were once harvested extensively for human food (in the east) and for the
biological supply trade (especially in the western Great Lakes area), and in the last few decades
they have been mercilessly exploited for the pet trade range-wide.
Conservation Status
Clemmys insculpta displays a number of life history traits that
make it especially vulnerable to exploitation and habitat
alteration by humans. In this and many other turtle and tortoise species, low reproductive rates
(low clutch size and/or high nest and hatchling mortality) and delayed sexual maturity are
normally balanced by relatively high survivorship of older juveniles and adults, and a long adult
reproductive lifespan.
Genus: Deirochelys
Geographic Range
Chicken turtles, made up of three subspecies, are found in suitable habitat throughout the
southeastern United States.
Habitat
Chicken turtles are semi-aquatic basking turtles, found on both water and land. They prefer quiet
bodies of water: ponds, lakes, ditches, marshes, cypress swamps and Carolina bays. They bask
on logs, rocks, and other emergent structures. They prefer water with plenty of aquatic
vegetation and a soft substrate.
Physical Description
Chicken turtles are readily identified by their long, striped necks. Head and neck length is
approximately equal to their plastron length, or up to 80% of the length of their carapace. They
are sometimes called “American snake necks” because of this.
Development
Chicken turtle embryos go through a period of diapause in the late gastrula stage. Some eggs
may overwinter in the nest before hatching. Incubation temperature influences the sex of the
embryos, with a 25 degrees Celsius incubation temperature resulting in all males. Warmer
temperatures result in an increase in female embryos, with only 11% becoming males at
incubation temperatures of 30 degrees Celsius.
Reproduction
Males court female chicken turtles by vibrating their foreclaws against the female's face. Chicken
turtles are different from most other North American turtles because they nest in either the fall
and winter. In South Carolina there are two egg-laying seasons; from winter to early spring
(February to May) and fall to early winter (August to November). Florida chicken turtles nest
nearly continuously from mid-September to early March.
Behavior
Chicken turtles are regularly encountered on land, either migrating between aquatic habitats or
seeking areas to burrow into the soil and escape dry conditions. Males generally move farther
than females. In South Carolina activity on land is highest in March and April. Chicken turtles
spend much of their time basking and active turtles have been recorded with cloacal temperatures
of 25.5 to 25.6 degrees Celsius. Chicken turtles hibernate in the soft mud and vegetation of
bodies of water in the northern parts of their range. Florida chicken turtles remain active
throughout the year. They are active during the day.
Food Habits
Chicken turtles are omnivorous, though they are somewhat more carnivorous than other turtle
species. During their first year of life they may be almost completely carnivorous. Chicken
turtles in South Carolina were found to be completely carnivorous during June and July. They eat
primarily crustaceans, aquatic insects, tadpoles, fish, and plants.
Economic Importance for Humans: Positive
Chicken turtles were once found in the food markets of the southern United States for their meat.
Their common name, "chicken" turtle, refers to their taste.
Conservation Status
Chicken turtle populations are currently considered stable
throughout their range, although they do face potential threats.
Habitat destruction reduces suitable habitat for foraging, migration,
and hibernation. Chicken turtles are sometimes killed on roads as
they migrate between habitats. Hunting for food also impacts
populations of chicken turtles.
Genus: Emydoidea
Geographic Range
Blanding's turtles are found from southwestern Quebec and southern Ontario west to Minnesota
and central Nebraska and south to central Illinois. The Great Lakes region is currently a
stronghold for this species
Habitat
Blanding's turtles are found in and around shallow weedy ponds, marshes, swamps, and lake
inlets and coves most of the year. They prefer slow-moving, shallow water and a muddy bottom
with plenty of vegetation
Physical Description
Blanding's turtle are medium sized turtles with a carapace length ranging from 15.2 to 27.4 cm.
These semi-aquatic turtles have moderately high, domed carapaces. They are elongate and
smooth, lacking keels or sculpturing. These turtles seem to have a permanent "smile" due to the
notch in the upper jaw. Contrasting greatly with the rest of the turtle, the chin, throat, and
underside of the long neck are bright yellow.
Reproduction
male approaches a female, quickly mounts her carapace, and clasps its edges with his claws. To
keep the female withdrawn, the male either bites at her head and forelimbs or presses down on
her snout with his chin. The male may also swing his head back and forth or up and down over
the female's head or blow a stream of bubbles across the top of her head. The pair will either sink
to the lake bottom, float near the surface, or hang on to vegetation until fertilization is complete.
Mating can occur between April and November but is most concentrated in April and May. Less
than half of the adult female population will reproduce in a give year. Mostly in June, females
may travel considerable distances from the water to find suitable nest sites to lay their eggs. They
prefer open, sunny spots in well-drained but moist sandy soil,
Behavior
Blanding's turtles, like most other turtles, emerge to bask on sunny days. Basking sits include
logs, grass clumps, sloping banks, or high perches near the water. Although these turtles are
quite tolerant to cold, the summer heat may restrict their activities to early morning and evening
or possibly a more nocturnal lifestyle. In the event of their habitat drying up some individuals
will opt to migrate to new bodies of water while others simply burrow into the mud and aestivate
until conditions improve. Blanding's turtles generally hibernate from late October until early
April, but quite often they can be seen moving slowly below the ice.
Food Habits
Blanding's turtles are omnivores. Their favorite food items are crustaceans but they also feed on
insects, leeches, snails, small fish, frogs, and occasionally some plants. Food is captured with a
rapid thrust of this turtle's long neck, similar to the feeding actions of the snapping turtle.
Feeding mostly occurs underwater and food seized on land is generally carried to the water for
swallowing. Prey is either swallowed whole or if it is too large it is held by the jaws and
shredded into smaller pieces by the front claws.
Predation
Turtle eggs and hatchlings have a variety of predators to which they have virtually no defenses.
Raccoons, skunks, and foxes are the major predators on the eggs, but they also prey upon the
hatchlings and juveniles. Rarely will the Blanding's turtle bite as a defense. It is an extremely
gentle organism that can rarely be induced to bite.
Conservation Status
Future survival of Blanding's turtle populations mainly depends on the condition and availability
of wetland habitats. This species has been given legal protection in certain
states. In the lower Great Lakes basin, however, they appear to be maintaining
populations.
Family: Chelydridae (tortoises)
The family Testudinidae contains approximately 11 genera and 40-50 species, depending on the
source. Tortoises are found in North and South America, Europe, Africa, Asia, and on the islands
of Madagascar, the Galapagos, and the Aldabra Atoll. All are terrestrial and inhabit warm areas
ranging from rain forests to deserts. Adaptations for terrestrial life include thick, elephantine rear
legs, short, web-less feet, and short digits. Tortoises are essentially herbivores and feed on
grasses, sedges, flowers, succulents, and fruits, although some species all also known to feed on
carrion. Predators of eggs and hatchlings include small mammals, birds, and other reptiles.
Species with smaller adults suffer occasional predation by canids and raccoons. Conservation is
necessary for many tortoises. Exploitation has come about through over-collection for pets and
food. In the southeastern US, organized rattlesnake hunts destroy gopher tortoise (Gopherus
polyphemus) burrows and lead to the deaths of tortoises (also habitat destruction and road
mortality). Gopher tortoises, or "gophers" as they are commonly called, live in dry habitats, such
as longleaf pine-scrub oak sandhills and clayhills, live oak and
red oak hammocks, sand pine scrub, wire grass flatwoods, dry
prairies, and coastal dune ecosystems.
Family: Cheloniidae (sea turtles)
These are the only turtles whose front limbs are stronger than
their back limbs.
The family Cheloniidae contains seven species within five genera. The sea turtles occur
worldwide in all tropical oceans. They are truly marine, with females coming ashore only to nest.
Sea turtles are omnivorous and feed on a variety of sponges, cnidarians, mollusks, crustaceans,
algae, plants, and fish. Adult turtles have relatively few natural predators, although sharks and
saltwater crocodiles are known to consume adults, and nesting females are preyed upon by
coyotes and other canids. Eggs and hatchlings are the most vulnerable, falling prey to insects,
crustaceans, mollusks, small mammals, birds, other reptiles, and various fishes.
Courtship and mating usually occur in shallow offshore waters. Mating often involves the male
and female pair floating near the surface, with the male's carapace protruding from the water.
Females reproduce on multi-year cycles, but produce multiple clutches within a single season.
Nesting occurs at night (except in Lepidochelys), and a range of seven to 238 eggs (averages
vary across species) are deposited in a single clutch.
Most, if not all, Cheloniids are in need of conservation. Development has reduced nesting areas,
so that the original range of some species will never be known. Turtles are harvested for food
and/ or "tortoise shell", and humans also take eggs as food. Many turtles are harmed by
commercial shrimp boats and pollution.
ex.- loggerhead, green, hawksbill in atlantic ocean
Family: Trionychidae (soft shellturtles)
The carapace of these turtles lacks scutes and is covered instead
with a leathery skin.
The family Trionychidae contains approximately 25 species with 12 genera. Members of the
family are distributed in eastern North America, Africa, Asia, and the Indo-Australian
archipelago. Habitats include slow moving streams, swift rivers, lakes, ponds, and even brackish
waters (freshwater), but a soft bottom is requisite. These turtles spend much time buried in the
mud, and basking is not common.
Carnivory is the rule for softshells, but some species are omnivorous. Crustaceans, insects,
mollusks, fish, and amphibians are common prey. As in other turtles, eggs and hatchlings are
much more susceptible to predation than adults.
Courtship has been observed in a few species and involves acts such as head bobbing between a
pair in some and the male rubbing the carapace of the female with his head in others. Overall,
however, knowledge of reproductive behavior is poor. Females reproduce annually, and nests
contain around 20 eggs. More than one clutch per season is often produced.