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X. Personality (6–8%)
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Personality Theories and Approaches
Assessment Techniques
Self-concept, Self-esteem
Growth and Adjustment
Deals with:
How people handle frustration
Concept of personality
Tests to measure personality
Personality Theories
Psychodynamic
Freud
Trait Approach
Allport’s Trait Theory
Big 5 model of Personality
Biological Trait Theory
Social Cognitive Approach Theories
Humanistic Approach Theories
Assessing Personality
Objective Personality Tests (questionnaires)
Projective Personality Test
Personality + Employee Selection
Observation
Basics:
Each of us has a consistent behavior pattern that defines our
Own personality
Understanding personality we can predict how people will act.
Personality
 is closely related to traits
 Can be understood by mental conflicts
 Is effected by learning
 Is effected by social situations
 Is effected by how people see themselves
1. Trait Theory
2. Psychodynamic Theory
(Freud- 518-522-Neo
Freudians)
3. Behavioristic Theory
4. Social Learning Theory
5. Humanistic Theory
Personality is a lens which
behavior is viewed.
Personality (definition)
 The unique pattern of
enduring thoughts,
feelings, and actions; that
characterize a person
 Consistency in personal
behavior patterns
 Reveal individual
differences
 Can be used to predict
behavior in the future
Personality is also the merging of
all psychological behavior &
biological processes
Personality Includes:
Developmental aspects
Genetic & Biological
Aspects
Perceptual Processing
Information processing
Biases
Emotional expression
Social skills
Self Monitoring
Process of regulating behavior through controlling personal behavior we display
Shyness= public self-consciousness
Personality factors:
Who you are
How you think
How you think, behave, express feelings… all of this.”
Personality: “A person’s unique pattern of thinking, emotions, behavior.
Refers to consistency in who you are have been and will become.”
Blend of talent values hopes, loves hates, and habits…
Personality is not characterCharacter is a term of evaluation
Friendly, outgoing, honest with moral values
Personality is not temperament
Temperament has hereditary aspects: sensitivity, irritability, distractibility,
typical moods.
510Traits: Sociable, orderly, intelligent, shy sensitive, creative
Personality traits
Are stable qualities that a person show in most situations
Are inferred from behavior
Stable personality traits are manifested by age 30
Personality Types = people who have several traits in common
Categories- popular = athletic, motherly
Carl Jung- and Traits
Said people are introverts or extroverts
Introverts
Extroverts
Shy
Bold outgoing
Egocentric
Attention directed outward
Attention is focused inward
Self Concept:
Consists of all your ideas
Perceptions + feelings about who you are
Guides our behavior
Problems can arise with inadequate or inaccurate self concept
Self Esteem
Rises with success
Low self esteem- negative self evaluation
Insecure, lacking in confidence, self critical
High Self Esteem
Confident, proud, self respecting
Genuine Self Esteem is accurate appraisal of strengths + weaknesses
Arrogance is problematic
Personality Theories:
Are frameworks to understand personality
A theory is a system of concepts, assumptions, ideas, and principles proposed to
explain personality.
5 Major Personality Theories:
 Trait Theories:
Purpose is to learn what traits makeup personality + how they relate to actual
behavior

Psycho dynamic Theories
Focuses on inner workings of personality especially internal conflicts & struggles

Behavioristic
Effect of conditioning + learning
Effects of external environment

Social Learning Theories
Attribute differences in personality to socialization expectations and mental
processes

Humanistic
Focuses on private subjective experience and personal growth
Trait Theories:
Purpose is to learn what traits makeup personality + how they relate to actual
behavior
Trait = stable + enduring qualities that a person shows in most situations.
To be considered a personality trait it must be typical of your behavior
Introverts and extroverts are traits knowledge
Allows us to predict behavior
Trait Theorists- attempt to analyze, classify, and interrelate traits…
4 traits identified by the Ancient Greeks
Introverted + Extroverted (emotionally stable and emotionally unstable)
Melancholic
Sad
Gloomy
Choleric
Hot-tempered
Irritable
Hans Eysenck 1960s trait theory
Phlegmatic
Sluggish
Calm
Sanguine
Cheerful
Hopeful
Allport
Gordon Allport (1961)
I defined different kinds of traits
Common traits = characteristics- shared by most
members of a culture
Tell us similarities – in a culture
Individual traits = defines a person of unique
qualities.
Cardinal Traits
Basic traits, easily visible or traceable to a
person’s activities
Few people have cardinal traits
Central Traits ***
Basic building blocks of personality
Small # of traits (7) tell clear story of
personality
Obvious to everyone
Used to control and organize behavior
Seen in many different situations
Relialble
Secondary Traits
Less consistent
Specific to situation
Control less behavior
Superficial aspects
o Food preferences
o Attitudes
o Political opinion
o Musical tastes
Raymond Cattell
Wanted to know how traits were
interlinked
Found Surface Traits
Make up visible areas of
personality
Found Source Traits
Source traits are surface traits that
occur in clusters
That appear often
Seen as a basic traits
Used statistics
Called factor analysis to define source traits
With factor analysis psychologists correlate
patterns associated with traits
Found 16 source traits
All are needed to fully describe a personality
called “16 Personality Factor Questionnaire”
(16PF)
Used to create a trait profile
The profile is a graph of a scores based on traits
The Big 5 = 5 Factor Model
Which is Cattell’s (16PF) reduced to 5 universal dimensions
1. Extroversion
2. Agreeableness
3. Conscientiousness
4. Neuroticism
5. Openness to experience
Can predict how people will act in various circumstances
(Any trait you can name will be tied to one factor or another)
Also used to compare personalities
1. How Extroverted or Introverted
2. Agreeable = How friendly, nurturing, caring vs. cold, indifferent, self centered,
spiteful
3. Conscientious = How self disciplined, responsible, and achieving
Vs. Irresponsible, careless, undependable
4. Neuroticism = How negative, upsetting emotions/ high N = anxious, emotionally
“sour” irritable and unhappy.
5. Openness to Experience = how open to experience are you?
Traits and Situations
Which is more important, Personality Traits or External Circumstances?
 Both are important
 Situations influence behavior
 Personality traits are consistent + can predict behavior
 Traits interact with situations to determine how we act.
Situations influence the expression of personality as settings change.
Do We Inherit Personality?
Behavioral Genetics- study of inherited behavioral traits
In humans we rely on Twin Studies
Things influenced by heredity
 Intelligence
 Some mental disorders
 Temperament and other qualities
Page 524
Learning Theories of Personality
Behavioralists reject trait theories
Say personality is a collection of learned behavior patterns.
Learning, reinforcement, imitation
People learn kindness, hostility, generosity, destructiveness
Classical and operant conditioning
Observational Learning
Reinforcement
Extinction
Generalization
Discrimination
There are situational implications on behavior
Situational Determinants = external causes of actions
Situations interact with a person’s background (prior learning)
Trait theory says situations interact with traits vs. behaviorists say situations interact
with prior learning.
Dollard and Miller Theory (Behavioralists)
Habits = learned behavior patterns = structure of personality
Habits are governed by 4 elements
1. Drive = stimulus strong enough to produce action
2. Cue = signals from environment
3. Response = action to get
4. Reward = positive reinforcement
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Social Learning Theory (Cognitive Behavioralism) (mental events used to explain
personality)
Include perception, thinking, Expectations, and other mental events social
relationships, modeling
Theories of Juilia Rotter
1. Psychological Situation- how a person interprets or defines a situation
These are really interpretations of an event/situation
These interpretations are key to how we respond
2. Expectancy- refers to your (thoughtful) anticipation that your response will lead
to reinforcement
Expected reinforcement is  key
3. Reinforcement Value – we attach subjective value to various activities or
rewards.
Self Efficacy (social learning theory) (Bandura argued)
Is the ability to control you own life “a capacity for producing a desired
result.”
Efficacy beliefs (shape our behavior)
Self-Reinforcement (Social learning theory) (impact of High Self-Esteem)
Praising + rewarding yourself for having made a success
Adds to Behavioristic view
Habits of self praise or self blame important in personality
Self Reinforcement =greater happiness and life satisfaction
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Personality Development and Learning Theorists
What makes early learning experiences so lasting in their effects?
The core of personality is shaped in early stages
Social reinforcement- based on praise, attention, approval (impacts
personality)
Miller and Dollard
Said 4 Critical Situations can have lasting impact on personality.
1. Feeding2. Toilet or cleanliness training
3. Sex Training
4. Learning to express Anger and Aggression
1. Feeding- children active 
Active or passive orientation of the world may be learned
Example of feeding
Active reinforcement—children fed when they cry (manipulate parents)
Passive reinforcement—children allowed to cry without being fed= passive
Could impact social relationships- could associate people with pleasure or
discomfort
2. Toilet + Cleanliness Training could be source of emotion
Frustration can have undesirable effects
Needs patience
3. Sex + Anger
Permissiveness in sexual and aggressive behavior linked to adult needs for power
Gender Development=
Sex appropriate behavior is learned
Identification and Imitation are important to personality
Identification= a child’s emotional attachment to admired adults encourages
imitation
Attention of any kind reinforces childrens behavior
Boys encouraged to be  aggressive, loud, boisterous
Girls- encouraged to be- submissive dependent, passive
Problem when parents are rejecting, punishing, sarcastic, humiliating, neglectful, their
children, become hostileHostile personality causes- unresponsive, unstable, dependent, impaired selfesteem
When parents are accepting and affectionate
Children develop sociable, positive, emotionally stable, high self esteem
Personality Research:
Focused on understanding origins causes of similarity and differences among
people:
1. In their patterns of thinking
2. Emotions
3. Behavior
Personality Assessments in Hiring TestsIntegrity Tests (screening)
 Test impulsivity
 Test disruptive behavior
 Try to predict likelihood of undesirable characteristics
 A scale – is the maladaptive behavior likely or not
 Looking for clues to personality
Heredity appears to be responsible for about 25-50% of the variation in many
personality traits.
Psychodynamic = Freudian (humans are driven by unconscious desires = impulse
gratification…)
Freud Influential
 Comprehensive
 Influenced modern thinking, literature, sociology, anthropology Shaped psycho-therapy techniques
 Some ideas supported by Cognitive research- example- defense mechanisms are
present in research.
 Evidence that people’s thoughts and actions are influenced by unrecalled events and
experiences
Criticism:
 Theories based on case studies (few individuals, conclusions may not apply to
people in general, narrow sample, upper-class Viennese women, culture impacted
ig sex)
 Western European values reflected
 Biases male and female interpretations
 Poor research- leading questions (false memories (implanted)
 Not scientific
View of Personality:
Each person’s personality is shaped by the number, nature and outcome of these
conflicts. (Id, ego, superego)
Defense Mechanisms: deflect (avoid) anxiety or guilt in the short run, but they sap
energy.
List some incidents in which you or someone you know might have used each of the
defenses described.
How can you tell if these are unconscious defense mechanisms or actions motivated by
conscious intentions?
Defenses MechanismsFreud said ego’s primary function is to prevent the anxiety or guilt we would feel if we
became aware of our socially unacceptable id impulses or if we thought about violating
the superego’s rules.
Ego might use unconscious tactics that protect against anxiety and guilt by either
preventing threatening material from surfacing or disguising it when it does.
1. Repression
Unconsciously pushing threatening memories, urges, or ideas from conscious
awareness; A person may experience loss of memory, for unpleasant events.
2. Rationalization
a. Attempt to make actions or mistakes seem reasonable:
b. The reasons or excuses given (e.g. “I spank my children because it is good for
them”) sound rational, but they are not the real reasons for the behavior.”)
3. Projection
a. Unconsciously attributing one’s own unacceptable thoughts or impulses to
another person:
b. Instead of recognizing that “I hate him,” a person my feel that “He hates me.”
4. Reaction Formation
a. Defending against unacceptable impulses by acting opposite to them:
b. Sexual interest in a married co-worker might appear as a strong dislike
instead.
5. Sublimation
a. Converting unacceptable impulses into socially acceptable actions, and
perhaps symbolically expressing them;
b. Sexual or aggressive desires may appear as artistic creativity or devotion to
athletic excellence.
6. Displacement
a. Deflection an impulse from its original target to a less threatening one:
b. Anger at one’s boss may be expressed through hostility toward a clerk, a
family member, or even a pet.
7. Denial
a. Simply discontinuing the existence of threatening impulses:
b. A person may vehemently deny ever having had even the slightest degree of
physical attraction to a person of the same sex.
8. Compensation
a. Striving to make up for unconscious impulses or fears
b. A business executive’s extreme competiveness might be aimed at
compensating for un-conscious feelings of inferiority.
Assessing Personality
Describing personality and diagnosing psychological disorders, predicting
dangerousness, selecting employees… - psychologists use four main sources:
 Life Outcomes- education, income, or marital status

Situational Tests- laboratory measurements of behavioral, emotional, and
physiological reactions to conflict, frustration…

Observer Ratings- judgments about a person made by family or friends

Self Reports- responses to interviews and personality (interviews)
Open-ended- questions are tailored to intellectual level, emotional state,
Structured- interviewer asks fixed questions about specific topics, in order
Tests must be
Reliable (Reliability) how stable/consistent the results are and
Valid (Validity) the degree to which test scores are interpreted appropriately and used
properly in making inferences about people
Tests are either Objective or Projective
Objective tests- clearly worded items relating to the individual being assessed;
Self report tests
Scores compared with group norms
Scores indicate conclusions about personality
Compared to others = average score of others = norms
Examples- traits, or a set of related traits,
NEO-PI-R Neuroticism Openness Personality Inventory (revised)
Measures Big 5 Personality Traits
Can be either (private) self responses or ratings by (public) another person
(Marriage counseling for spouses with drastic differences)
Very Reliable
Can be used in prediction of future behavior
Example likelihood of criminal behavior
MMPI Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory
 Diagnose psych disorders
 MMPI-2
 Clinical scales
 Respondents scores are compared to others who have been previously diagnosed
 Ex. Levels of OCD
 Objective test
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

Computer statistic analysis
Focuses on overall pattern (indications)
Projective Personality Test (problem in analysis, reliability)
Unstructured stimuli- which can be perceived in many ways
Psychodynamic tests- reveal unconscious needs, motives, fantasies, conflicts, thoughts
(hidden or unconscious)
Used with clinical psychology to assess psychological disorders
Thematic Appreciation Test (TAT)
Measures need for achievement, need for power, need for affiliation…
Rorschach Inkblot Test
Measure aggressive and sexual impulses that people otherwise might be
able to hide