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MODULE – I
CLASS-1.
Introduction to organisation Behaviour
Organisation – It is the form of every human association for the attachment
of common purpose.
In modern system organization is an economic & social entity where a
variety of tasks are performed by a number of persons to attain a common
goal.
Organisation is i) Social entity
ii) Goal directed
iii) Relatively permanent
iv) Structure
v) Openness
Study of organization means study of its nature of organization,
organizational change & its development.
Either, the stone is too big for the man or the man was too small for the
stone.
Organization supports individuals provides social satisfaction. It satisfied the
needs for interaction companionship, belonging and contribution to common
purpose.
Materialistic Approaches of an Organisation :i)
ii)
iii)
To enlarge abilities
To compress the time required to accomplish an objective.
To take advantage of accumulated knowledge of previous
generation.
Models of Organisation:i)
ii)
iii)
iv)
The autocratic model
The custodial model (Aggression with
The supportive modes (leadership)
The collegial model (extension of supportive model i.e. in a group)
Power came from position expertise, group support, seniority etc.
“Note for Discussion”Wearing identical clothes has not changed the attitude of the boss towards
his subordinates.
When organization stagnate decline or under a threat of closure there will be
conflict & stress.
Diagram –
Personality,
Perception,
Learning,
Attitudes
&values,
Motivation
Group
dynamics,
Leadership
power &
Politics
communication,
Conflict
Individual
behaviour
Group behaviour
Organisational
effectiveness
Organisationals
culture
H.R.
policies
&
practices, work
stress,
organizational
change
&
development
Organisational
behaviour
CLASS-2.
Importance,Scope and existence of OB
Fundamental Concept of OB:The basic assumptions distinct to OB discipline are1. There are differences between individuals
2. A whole person
3. Behaviour of an individual
4. An individual has dignity
5. Organisation are social systems
6. Modality of interest among organizational members.
7. Holistic organizational behaviour.
1- Individual differ in intelligence, physique, personality, decision in any
such trait.
2- When a person is hired his skill his social background, like & dislike,
pride & prejudices are also hired.
3- To find out the root cause of a behaviour posed.
4- Human being wants to be treated with respect and dignity.
5- Organisations are governed by social laws as well as psychological
laws.
a) One is formal system
b) Another is informal system
1)
2)
3)
4)
Function of Managers
Management Skills
Definition & meaning of OB
Fundamental Concepta) There are difference between individuals
b) A whole person
c) Behaviour of an individual is caused
d) An individual has dignity
e) Organisations are social systems
f) Mutuality of interest among organizational members
g) Holistic organizational behaviour.
5) Scope of O.B.a) Intra-personal behaviour
b) Inter-personal behaviour
6) Contributing Disciplines:a) Psychology
b) Sociology
c) Political Science
d) Anthropology
e) Social-psychology
7) Why we study OB?
8) Shortcoming of OB.
9) Approaches to the study of OBa) Human resources approach
b) Contingency approach
c) Productivity approach
d) System approach
10)
OB ModelDiagram –
11)
Emerging challenges & opportunities for OB in the next
millennium:-
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)
h)
Work force diversity
Changing demographic of work forces.
Changed employee expectation
Globalisation
Corporate reorganizations
Improving quality & productivity ( TQM, Reengineering)
Stimulating innovation & Change
Improving ethical behaviour.
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
Historical Evaluation of OB:Industrial revolution
Scientific management
The human relations movement
Hawthorne studies
Organisational behaviour
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
Research Termilogy:Variable
Hypothe
Dependable variable
Independent variable
Moderating variable
Theory.
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
Basic Research Method:Case study
Laboratory experiment
Field experiment
Survey research
Simulation
Best method
12)
13)
14)
15)
Foundation of Individual Behaviour:-
Diagram
Environmental Factors
Economics, social
norms & cultural values,
Political
Performance
Personal Factors
Age, Sex, Edu, Abilities,
Marital status, creativity
& Innovation
Organisational System &
Resources
Phisical
facilities,
Organisation Structure &
Design
Leadership,
Reward System
Psychological Factor
Personality,
Perception,
Attitudes,
Values
&
Learning.
16)
Individual Behaviour Models:-
Individual
Developments
a) Rotation & emotional model
b) Behaviouristic & humanistic models
c) Economic & self actualizing models
d) Theory X & theory Y models
Mutuality of interest is “Organisations need people & people also need
organization”
When all the above assumptions emerges it create a holistic approach.
Scope of OB:Intrapersonal behaviour covers personality, attitude, perception, learning,
opinion, motivation & job satisfaction.
About Organisation covers about their formation structures effectiveness
& formal and informal organizations.
Inter-personal Behaviour:Covers group dynamics inter group conflict, leadership,
communication etc.
Contributing Disciplines:1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
Psychology – Individual (intra personal)
Sociology – Group (interpersonal) organization
Social-Psychology – (Group) both from Psychology
sociology
Anthropology – (Group & Organisation) Study of human
culture
Political Science - Organisation
Why study O.B?
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
To understand own & others in a better way.
It increases interpersonal relation.
To understand somebody’s style & talking.
To motivate others for getting things done.
To maintain cordial industrial relation(union relation with Mgt
It helps in understanding the cause for the problem.
To predict its course of action.
8. To control its consequences.
9. It is a human tool for human benefit.
10.It is the base for modern HRD.
11.It helps in marketing specifically.
12.It helps to understand the consumer choice behaviour.
13.It teaches the nature of influence to consumer.
14.It finds channels involvement in market.
15.It creates innovation creativity in job.
Emerging Challenges & Opportunities for O.B in the next millennium: 1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Work force diversity.
Changing demographics of work force.
Changed employee ----------------Globalisation
Corporate re-organisations
Improving quality & productivity (TQM)
Stimulating innovation & change .
Improving ethical behaviour.
Ethics at Thomas Cook (I) Ltd.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Working with customers & suppliers
Govt. business.
Fair competition.
Working in the TCIL community
Personal integrity.
Psychology:- Motivation, Personality, Perception, Attitude, Opinion,
Learning etc.
Sociology:- Interpersonal dynamics
Leadership group dynamics.
Communication, Formation of groups formal & informal organizations ,etc.
Social
Psychology:- Measuring,
Communication,
Understanding, Changing attitude,
Pattern, Group decision making etc.
Anthropology:- Culture, Environment, Style,
Political Science:- Conflict resolution, Group allocation of power,
Manipulation of power, etc.
DIAGRAM.
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
8)
Work force diversity (Raos, Reddy etc)
Changing demographics of work-force.
Changed employee expectations
Globalisation
Corporate reorganisation
Improving quality & productivity
Stimulating innovation & change
Improving ethical behaviour
Style of Organisation:1)
2)
3)
4)
Autocratic
Custodial
Supportive
Collegial
Creativity- Three elements are responsible to create creativity.
1) Background Experience
2) Personal Traits
3) Cogritive abilities (Individual power to think intelligently)
Management – It is the social & technical process that utilizes resources,
influences human action changes in order to accomplish an
organizations goal.
(First we should understand the concepts of management, manager &
organizations)
Function of ManagersForecasting, Planning, Organizing, Commanding, Coordinating, Controlling,
Decision making.
Social, Economic & technological developments & changing business
environment so fast.
Skills of Managers1) Technical skill
2) Human skill
3) Conceptual skill
Short Coming1) Sometimes a very good behaviourist may be a big failure on the
domestic front.
2) It doesn’t contributed to improve individual relation.
Training, Seminar doesn’t stop strike or lockouts.
3) OB has almost become a fad with managers in most organizations.
Common uniforms, open offices, shaved, canteens are possible to
improve inter-personal relations. But meaning identical clothes has
not changed the attitude of the boss towards his subordinates.
4) OB is selfish & exploitative
5) Quick fix behaviour
6) OB will not abolish conflict
7) SOB- Indian society of Organization Behaviour.
Approaches to Study of OB1) Human resources approach.
2) Contingency approach. (Situational approach)
3) Productivity approach. (Ratio of Economic input & output)
4) System approach. (Looking organization as whole)
Historical Evaluation1)
2)
3)
4)
Emphasis on build up SSI units
Emphasis on Building PSU
Emphasis on private sections
Incorporate regulation for employer-employee relations
5) Regulations like a) minimum wage act b) incentive wage plan.
6) After that
a) Individual relations all act like
 Industrial dispute act
 Employment exchange act
 Standing order act
b) Labour
 Social security
 Canteen
 Crechs
 Bonus act
 Fire & safety act
 Compensation act
Revolution1) Industrial Revolution- Revolution brought about,
 Materialism
 Discipline
 Monotony
 Boredom
 Job displacement
 Impersonality
 Work interdependence
2) Role
Basic Research Methods1) Case studies
2) Laboratory Experiment
3) Field Experiment
4) Survey Research
5) Simulations
Best method is the combine of all basing on certain situation.
CLASS-3.
Learning-Definition,link to OB
Nature of Learning1) The change due to learning may not be evident until a situation arises
to show or implement that behaviour.
2) It is not always reflected in performance
3) Learning is relatively permanent in nature.
4) Permanent learning causes fatigue
5) It reflects in behaviour
6) Learning occur from experience, practice or timing. This implies
behaviour causes from maturation * or physical damages does not
constitute learning.
7) Reinforcement is required for learning but it reinforcement is not
caaompany the practice or experience the behaviour will eventually
disappears.
8) Learning occurs through out one’s life.
LearningLearning is understood as the modification of behaviour through practice,
training, and experience.
a) Change should be relatively permanent
b) Temporary changes only be reflective
c) Change may be bad or good
d) Change can’t be evident unless a situation arises to show a new
changed behaviour.
e) Learning is not always reflective in performance
f) Learning is reflective in behaviour
g) Change of behaviour caused from maturation disease or
physical damage does not constitute learning.
h) Reinforcement accompanies practice on experience.
“Learning may be defined as a relatively permanent change in behaviour that
occurs as a result of prior experience.”
“Learning can be defined as relatively permanent change in behaviouar
potentially that results from reinforced practice or experience.”
CLASS-4.
Learning theories
Learning Methods1) Classical Conditioning
2) Operant Conditioning
3) Cognitive Theory of learning
4) Social Learning Theory.
One situation is substituted for another to elicit behaviour is called
conditioning.
1) Classical ConditioningThe association of one event with another derived event resulting in a
behaviour. This process of learning is a classical conditioning model
of learning
The Russian Psychologist Ivan Pavlov won the Noble prize by
developing this theory with the experiment of dog salivation & the
ringing of a bell.
a) Salivation in response to food is natural.
b) Unlearned response is reflex.
c) Therefore response is unconditioned reflex.(salivation is
response to food)
d) So food is unconditioned stimulus.
e) Salivation in response to the bell is conditioned reflex.
f) Reflex is dependent upon a stimulus.
 Unconditioned stimulus.(US) (Food)
 Conditioned Stimulus (CS) (Bell sound)
 Unconditioned Response (US) (Salivation in response to food)
 Conditioned Response (CR) (Salivation in response to bell)
These are the involuntary response that are elicited by a stimulus.
Skinever felt that most human behaviours affects operates on the
environment.
DIAGRAM OF CLASSICAL COMDITIONING-
2) Operant Conditioning- (O.C)
According to B.F. Skinner(Harvard Psychologist), it is a function of
its consequence & behaviour will be repeated to become a character.
It follows the individual behaviour it consequences is the essence of
operant conditioning.
Operant senses what we do or act as an anticipation of relevant which
acts as a reinforce for the commission of these behaviours.
Operant conditioning techniques are extensively used in clinical &
educational research control of & control of deviant children in a
classroom.
The emphasis is classical conditioning is upon involuntary responses
while the emphasis in operent conditioning is upon voluntary
responses.
 Behaviour is not going to be repeated if the consequences are
unfavourable.
Classical Conditioning
1) Responses
are
evoked
elicited from a person.
(Reactive)
OperantConditioning
1) Responses are committed by
a person.(Proactive)
2) Responses are fixed to
stimulates.(No choice)
3) It is stimulus such as a sound
an object a person.
2) Responses are variable in
types & degrces.(Choice)
3) It is a situation such as an
office a social setting a specific
set of circumstances.
4) Reinforcement
received by choice
4) Person is instrumental in
securing reinforcement by
operating on the environment.
is
not
Cognitive Theory of LearningThis refers to an individual’s thoughts, knowledge, interpretations, understanding
or ideas about himself & his environment. This theory based on the assumption
of the organization learns the meaning of various objects, events & learned
responses depending upon the meaning assigned to stimuli. Cognitive theory
supports informing a cognitive structure in memory.
In the cognitive theory the role of an organization in receiving, memorizing, &
interpreting stimuli and reacting is recognized and emphasized. This theory is
very much alike & relevant also center upon very motivation theories.
Expectations attribution and focus of control and very goal setting are all
cognitive concepts and the purposefully ness of O.B. now the concern is to
establish the relationship between cognitions and O.B.
Social Learning TheoryThis is the theory of observation. By observing and watching the social incidents
and models human being learns. The social events and objects are function
(social in nature), parents, teachers, motion pictures, TV artists, bosses and
others.
Human being learns through 4 process.
1) Attentional Process- Human being influenced by attractive models which
are repeatedly available and thought important.
2) Retention Process- How long an influenced model remembered.
3) Production Process- Recall of some important model with similar one.
4) Reinforcement Process- Positive incentives on rewards outcomes model
must be acts as reinforcement.
Principle of LearningConstituents must be interpersonal in positive way and applied carefully.
1) Motivation2) Knowledge of Results-
3) Reinforcement - There are four forms of reinforcement. Likea) Positive Reinforcement
b) Avoidance
c) Extinction
d) Punishment
a) Positive Reinforcement :- This strengthens & increases behaviour by
the presentation of desirable consequences. If an employee
complimented for his/her good job by the orientation then that
behaviour repeated and strength.
b) Avoidance :- It is a negative reinforcement. This used to increases
the frequency of desirable behaviour. At some cases a person is
given the opportunity to avoid an unpleasant consequence.
c) Extinction:- This is provided or practiced to decrease the frequency
of undesirable behaviour, especially those behaviours what were
rewarded previously.
d) Punishment :- Punishment is also tend to decrease the frequency of
unstable behaviour. It is presented as an unpleasant or aversive,
consequence of undesirable behaviour.
Example of Punishment - are included verbal on written statement,
paycuts, logoff and termination.
Learning Curve- DIAGRAM
- -----------------------XXXXXXXXXXX---------------------------------
MODULE - II
CLASS-5.
Foundations of Individual Behaviour(Remember the direction of arrows)
Behaviour of individual influenced by several factors. They are: Environmental Factors
* Economic
* Social norms & cultural
values
* Political
Personal Factors
* Age
* Sex
* Education
* Abilities
* Marital status
* No. of depart ants
Performance
Organisational systems & resources
 Physical
 Organisational
structure & design
 Leadership
 Reward system
Individual
Developments
Psychological Factors





Personality
Perception
Attitudes
Values
Learning
Behaviour Models : 1) Rational & Emotional Models – Deliberative, serious & computational due
to conflict of Id, ego & superego.
2) Behaviouristics & Humanistic Models – Humanistic & Philosophical.
3) Economic & Self-actuating Models – Capable of becoming everything.
4) Theory X & Theory Y Models – Negative and Positive.
- Distinctive Character -
Personality
In a narrow sense personality implies one’s charm, popularity, dress & other
physical attractiveness. It does not help much in understanding an individual’s
behaviour in an organization.
Meaning and Definition of Personality The initial conception of personality is a superficial social image that an
individual adopt to role play in society.
But the organization behaviourist integrate personality in other ways –
Cad Rogers definition of personality in terms of self an organized, permanent,
subjectively perceived entity which is at the very learnt of all our experiences.
By G. Allport it suggested as what an individual really is, as an internal
“something” that guides and directs all human ability.
Freud describes the structure of personality composed of three elements i.e.
 Id
 Ego
 Superego.
The social learning aspect of personality is to recognised the person – situation –
interaction.
Personality makes individual unique.
Personality is anybody’s pattern of inner and outer measurable traits.
Now mathematically, B = f ( Consequence) = f (c)
= f ( Personality, Environmental factor)
= f ( P, E)
Theories On Personality 1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
Type Theories
Trait Theories
Psychoanalytic
Social Learning
Humanistic
1) Type Theories –
(By word) This theory place personality into clearly identifiable
categories.
 Subjective type
 Psychological type
 Social type
Carl Jung Divided all personalities into introverts & extroverts. This is
social type.
Thinking
I
II
Sensation
Intution
III
IV
Feeling
2) Trait Theories –
( By a list of words) (Descriptive) ( Not-analytical )
It is understood as an enduring attribute of a person that appears
consistently in a variety of situations.
Enduring is – undergoing, tolerating, bearing.
Attribute is – regard as belonging, produced.
We could rate an individual on a scale of intelligence, emotional stability,
aggressiveness, creativeness or any of a number of other dimensions.
3) Psychoanalytic –
( Attiliation, Achievement, Anxiety, Dependency )
Id seeks pleasure.
Ego tests reality.
Superego strives for perfection.
Superego
Ego
Id
Type Theory (X X X X ) – Knetschmen and Sheldon classification or Sheldon’s
Physiognomy Theory.
1) Endomonph – Short & Plumb Person
Characters – Sociable, relaxed & tempered.
2) Ectomonph – Tall & Thin Person
Characters – Restrained, self conscious & fond of solitude.
3) Meromonph – A heavy set muscular Person.
Characters – Noisy, callous & fond of physical activity. This body basis
personality is subjective.
CLASS-6.
Determinations of Personality – (Types)
Personality determines under four broad head. They are1) Biological Factors – Under this,
 Heredity
 Brain
 Physical features
2) Cultural Factors
3) Family & Social Factors – Under this,
 Socialization process
 Identification process
4) Situational Factors
Personality Determinate Chart -
Personality
Determinants
Biological
Heredity
Cultural
Brain
Family
Social
&
Situational
Physical
Socialization
Process
Identification
Process
Heredity – Physical stature, facial attractiveness, sex, temperament, muscular
composition & reflexes, energy level & biological rhythms are
characteristics that are generally considered to be imported either
completely or substantially by one’s parents.
Environment – Environment is a broad term & include culture, culture
establishes norms, attitudes & values & help in establishing them
permanently or consistently.
Every culture has the own subcultures. Those sub-cultures are moral
values, standards of cleanliness, style of dress and definitions of success & they
influences on personality.
Contribution from the family – This factor contributes a lot to influence
personality at the early stage i.e. in childhood. Parents play a big role to this
development i.e. in the identification process of child personality development.
Identification process is that process in which a child like to be a role
model.
Socialisation Process – This process is mainly relevant to organizational
behaviour because it is not confined to childhood only rather to relevant persons,
groups and organizations exercise their due role in personality development.
Situational Considerations – Situations will influence an individuals personality.
We know that certain situations are more relevant than others in influencing
personality.
Ex- A picnic in a public park constraining relatively
Now it is clear that personality is a complex concept that reflects many influences
both within & outside the individual.
CLASS-7.
Personality Traits : Traits is understood as a predisposition to respond in an equivalent manner
to various kinds of stimuli. Traits are psychological entities that render many
stimuli as well as many responses equivalent.
a) The Myens-Briggs Framework –
This is a popular question with 100 items and is widely used to
understand personalities in organizations. The Myens-Briggs type
indicator (MBTI) as to people how they usually feel or act in
particular situations. Basing on their assures people are differtiated
in terms of four general dimensions i.e. sensing, intuiting, judging &
perceiving. Higher and lower positions in each of the dimensions are
used to clarify people in to sixteen different personality categories.
It is widely used in selection process. It is very useful in determining
communication styles and interaction preferences.
b) The Big Five Model –
This is a model, which consists five big factors for understanding
personality. Those five factors are:
Agreeableness
Conscientiousness
Emotional stability
Extroversion
Openness
Agreeable people & co-operative & trusting of others, their value,
harmony.
Conscientiousness person is organized, systematic, careful thorough
responsible, self disciplined & achievement oriented.
The person who is with positive emotional stability tends to be calm,
enthusiastic & secure.
Extroverts are sociable, talkative, assertive & open to establishing
new relationship.
Extremely open people are fascinated by novelty & innovation.
They are willing to listen to new ideas & to change their own ideas,
beliefs & attitudes in response to new information.
c)
Major Traits Influencing O.B.i) Authoritarianism: It is developed by the Psychologist Adorno during
world War II to measure susceptibilied to autocratic, fascistic or
anti-democratic appeals. Authorities are rigid in their positions,
place high moral value on their beliefs & strongly oriented towards
conformity to rules & regulations. They prefer to work in structured
& stable work environment which are governed by clean rules &
regulations. They prefer directive leadership style.
ii) Locus of Control: Locus of control refers to an individual belief that
events are within one’s control or are determined by forces beyond
one’s control.
It has been proved that external are less satisfied with their jobs, have
higher absenterism rates, more alienated from work setting & less
involved on their jobs. Internals typically have more control ours their
own behaviour are more active a seeking information to make decisions
& are more active socially than externals.
iii) Machiavellianism : It refers to an individual propessility to
manipulate people. Machiavellians would be to participate in . They
are also adopt at inter personal game playing power tactics &
identifying influence system in organizations.
Machiavellians performs better jobs where it bargaining skills & where
these are rewards for winning.
iv) Introversion & Extroversion: Extroverts & gregarious & sociable
individuals .Introverts & shy,
v) Achievement Orientation: Employees with a high need to achieve
strive to do things better. They want to overcome obstacles. They also
want to feel that their success or failure is due to their own actions.
They like tasks of moderate difficulty. High achieves will perform
better where these is moderate difficulty rapid performance feedback &
direct relationship between effort & reward. Therefore it implies high
performance will do better in sales, sports on in management.
vi) Self-esteem: Self –esteem refers to feeling of like or dislike of one
self. Self-esteem is directly related to desire for success. People have
high self-esteem that they have abilities to undertake challenging jobs.
High self-esteem people are more satisfied with their jobs.
vii) Risk-taking: High –risk-staking managers made more rapid
decisions & used less information in making their choices. Eg. of a
high-risk-taking prosperity may bead to make effective performance for
a stock trades in a brokerage firm. This type of job demands rapid
decision-making.
viii) Self-monitoring: It refers to an individuals ability to adjust his or
her behaviour to external factors. Those who are self-monitoring show
considerably adoptable in adjusting their behaviour to external,
situational factors. High self-monitors are capable of presenting striking
contradicts between their public, personal & their private selves. High
self-motivation posses positive attitude in every situation & give
attention to the behaviour of others. They will be move successful in
mahegecial position where individual are required to play multiple &
even contradicting roles.
ix) Type A Personality: Type A personality typifies a person who is
always in a hussy, is extremely competitive and is often hostile and
irritable.
Type B Personality is, who is relaxed incompetent & easy going.
But, from organization point of view type A’s are highly competitive
and hardworking while it is the type B’s who climb up to the top of
organization. This is because of the tendency of type A’s to trade off
quality of effort for quality. Executives positions usually go to those
who are wise, tactful & creative in competitive strife.
Personality and O.B. 1) Personality is an important determinate of employee behaviour.
2) Personality is the focal point determining motivation.
3) Personality characteristics influence selection of individuals to
occupy various positions in an organization.
4) The concept of personality is not to be understood in an
organizational context only.
CLASS-8.
Meaning & Definition of Perception
1) Peoples action, emotions, thoughts & feelings are trigged by perceptions of
their surroundings.
2) It is an intellectual process by which a person acquires the information
from the environment, organige it & obtains the meaning from it.
3) Perception is the basic cognitive or psychological process.
4) Perception can be defined as the process of receiving, selecting,
organizing, interpreting, checking & reacting to sensory stimuli or data.
Perceptual Process: Perceptual Process
inputs
Organisation
outputs
actions
Information,
People etc.
objects,
events
Selection
Interpretation
Fig.1. A simplified models of perceptual process.
Perceptual Process
Perceiver
Receiving
Selecting
Organising
Object
Reacting
Checking
Interpreting
Situation
Fig. 2. Perceptual Process
1) Process of Receiving Stimuli: Human organism structured with five sensory organs. They are,
I . Vision
II. Hearing
III. Smell
IV. Touch &
V. Testing.
Apart from these 5 sense there is a 6th sense, about which nothing is known
more.
Example of outside stimuli are include light , sound waves, mechanical
energy or pressure & chemical energy from object that are can smell &
taste. Inside stimuli are include energy generated by muscles, food passing
though the digestive system & secreting behaviour influencing hormones.
2) Process of Selecting Stimuli: “External factors influencing selection” – Nature, location intensity, size,
contrast, movement, repetition, novelty & familiarity.
“Internal factors influencing selection” – Learning, psychological needs,
age difference, interest, ambivalence, paranoid perception.
3) The Organising Process: There are three dimensions to the perceptual organization.
a) Figure ground
b) Perceptual grouping
c) Perceptual constancy.
4) The Process of Interpreting: It is to assign meaning to the information.
a) Perceptual set
b) Attribution
c) Stereotyping
d) Halo effect
e) Perceptual defence
f) Implicit personality theory
g) Projection.
CLASS-9.
Process Selecting Stimuli: Nature : By nature the object is visual or auditory. Visual means picture &
auditory means which is audible or what you can listen.
Location : Position of ads in newspapers & magazines.
Intensity : A loud noise, strong adour or bright light than soft sound, weak odour
on dim light.
Size : Larger size attract more attention than the smaller ones.
Contrast : External stimuli which are not what people are expecting. Plant safety
signs which have black lettering on a yellow background.
Movement : A moving object receives more attention than an object that is
standing still.
Repetition : The same advertisement of a product flashed daily on TV is based on
the principle of repetition.
Novelty & Familiarity : Example is job notation.
Learning : This is a cognitive factor which considerable influence on perception.
Psychological Needs : Need hierarchy of freedom, love, community feeling,
respect etc.
Age Difference : Older senior executives & young executives.
Interest : Interest of the perceiver.
Ambivalence : Mixed feeling about a situation. Ex. Of a young man’s fiancés.
Paranoid Perception : Characteristic of the emotionally disturbed person. He is
given to excessive repression, projection, general distortion of reality &
personalized interpretation.
Organising Process : Figure Ground : This principle specifies how the background influence the
tangent by a figure.
Ex. i) The word fly & Tie with gray background.
ii) Focus is on black letters but not in the white page.
Perceptual Group : Grouping of objects into similar shape, size or colour.
Ex. I) Uniform of NALCO employees like that.
Perceptual Constancy : Our ability to perceive certain characteristics of an object
as remaining constant, despite of variation in the stimuli that provide us with
conflict information.
Ex. We see the top of a glass bottle as “Circular” whether we view it from the
side on from the top.
Interpreting Process :It is to assign meaning to the organized information .
Perceptual Set: It is the interpretation of the manager regarding the behaviour of
the workers according to his mental set.
Attribution: Status, intentions & consequences influence the attribution process.
Stereotyping: Example of stereotyping are;
1) Americans are materialistic.
2) Japaness are nationalistics.
3) Indians are fatalistics.
4) Germans are industrious.
5) Workers every where are anti-management.
6) Judges are wise.
Halo Effect: Halo effect is the tendency of perceiving people interms of good or
bad. Like or dislike.
Bright example is a professor awards more marks to a well liked student. It is not
that professor likes that student but he wants him to do well in the Exam. The
holo effect may be responsible for finding high correlations between the rating
given to people on various dimensions.
Perceptual Defense: It is the defence against conflict, unacceptable or threatening
stimuli. The defencs mechanism posses in four from. They are,
I)
II)
III)
IV)
Out night denial
Modification
Change in perception but refusal to change
Change in perception itself.
Perceptual Context: The context in which an object is placed influenced
perception. Examples are a verbal order, a memo, a new policy, a suggestion, a
raised eye brow or a put on the back talks on special meaning & value when
placed in the context of a work organization.
Implicit Personality Theory: Example is the trait honesty is associated with hand
working. All industrious people are perceived to be honest.
Projection: People project their own feelings, tendencies on motives in to their
judgement of others. People who are afraid may interpret others behaviour as
fearful on anxious.
The Process of Checking: After data received & interpreted the perceiver check
his interpretations are right or wrong. One way of checking its for the person
himself to indulge in introspection.
There is another way of checking i.e. the checking of the variety about the
interpretation with others.
The Process of Reacting: It is the action phase of the perceiver in relation to
his/her perception. The action depends on whether the perception. The action
depends on whether the perception is favorable or unfavorable.
Importance of Perception: 1) Perception influences individual needs, habits, values, personality &
attitudes.
2) It drives to take an intuitive decision thus helps in decision making.
3) It gives the idea to study the physical attributes, appearances & behaviour
of the perceiver.
4) It gives the idea of the social & organizational settings of the perceiver.
5) Negative perception tends to illusions.
6) Perception plays a fig role in selecting employees & in their performance
appraisals.
________________XXX_________________
CLASS-10.
MOTIVATION
Motivation Model –
Need
Deficiency
Search & Choice of
Strategy
Goal
Behaviour
Reevaluation of
needs
Reward
Punishment
Evaluation
Performance
or
Directed
of
Motivation is a physiological or psychological deficiency is need this need
actives certain behaviour to achieve that need or aim on goal.Those behaviour are
the motivational factors.
Importance of Motivation –
1) Motivation drives employees to do things deficiency such that the works
completed with new innovation & in effective manner.
2) It helps employees to add value in the work or to make the work
qualititative.
3) Highly motivated workers are more productive than apathetic works.
4) Motivation is not only require to attract people to join in the organization
but to hold them also.
5) It makes people self dependent to perform task.
6) It adds creativeness & new innovation to job.
7) It is a comprehensive understanding method, which contributes to accrue a
good leaders style, job realization & perfect sale system All these relates to
better performance satisfaction.
8) Motivation contributes & helps employee to active knowledge in new &
advanced technology.
9) Motivation leads the employee as future resources for an organization
which helps in designing training programme, job design, job satisfaction,
job rotation & other HR oriented programmes.
10)
Motivation is paid attention by our managers to speak about its
importance in management of human resources.
Types of Question -:
Notes – Q1 . Write a content theory which specifies about a health man.
CLASS 11.
Maslow’s Need Hierarchy Theory -:
Developed by Abraham Harold Maslows.
Physiological Needs -:
Satisfies the biological maintenance of the organism.
Examples are food, drink, oxygen, sleep, sex, protection from extreme
temperature & sensory stimulation.
Phisical Example-: A person who is hungury continuously for a period cann’t be
motivated to compose music or build a brave new world.
This type of need is very much crucial to understand human behaviour.
Another bright example can be given here as the air crash of the peruriah airline.
Where the person was a survivors one catholic priest stand eating the victims of
the crash when a food supply couldn’t provided in that crash (jungle) area. This
example specifies low deeply the social & moral value, and implied the
biological needs under stressful condition. In an organization the basic
physiological needs are concerned for salary & basic working conditions.
Safety Needs -:
Emample of safety need is preference for secured income, acquisition of
insurance & owning one’s own house. Safety from real emergencies like war,
crime, tsunami, floods, earthquakes, land slide, riots, social disorganizations &
etc. is highly needs by human being for positive motivation social securities of
employees like pension scheme, group insurance, provident fund, gratuity & ESI
are highly needed for employee motivation.
Social or Belonging & Love, Needs -:
Social needs represent the need for a compactable work group, peer,
acceptance, professional friendships & friendly supervision.
An individual feels lonely, social ostracism, friendlessness in the absence
of a group.
Self Esteem Needs -: (Esteem or Egoistic needs)
It is bifurcated into two subsidiary sets.
They are a) Self respect
b) Esteem from others.
a) Self Respect - Competence, confidence, personal strength, adequacy,
achievements, independence & freedom.
b) Esteem from others – Prestige, recognition, acceptance, attention,
status, reputation & appreciation.
Once this method is satisfied, it generates feeling & attitudes it self confidence,
worth, strength & of being useful & necessary in the world.
When it is not fulfilled it leads to feelings & attitudes of inferiority, weakness &
helplessness.
Maslow emphasized that the most healthy self esteem is based on earned respect
from others rather than on fame, status or adulation managerial practices to fulfill
these needs includes challenging work assignments performance feed back,
performance recognition, personal income & involving employees in good
getting & decision making.
Self-Actualisation needs :It is the desire to become everything that one is capable of becoming to
fulfill this need a person in his/her highest level the full use & exploitation of his
talents, capabilities & potentialities. In other words it is that need of an individual
to become the total kind of person that one wants to become to reach the peak of
ones potential.
Motivation – Hygiene Theory or Two Factor Theory or Extrinsic & Intrinsic
Theory or Herzberg Theory : This motivation theory is proposed by psychologist Frederick Herzberg.
The first part of the model represents a formally stated theory of work
behaviour. Where as in second aspect Herzberg focused upon the
behavioral consequences of job enrichment & job satisfaction
programmes. Herzberg made his research by taking a sample of 200
accountant & engineers with his associates Mausner, Peterson &
Capwell.
He asked two questions to all samples. The questions are :
1) When did you feel particularly good about your job?
2) When did you feel exceptionally bad about your job?
The obtained responses from this critical incident method were
interesting. They are completely related to job satisfaction & job
dissatisfaction.
Job satisfaction factors or satisfiers or job content factors or intrinsic
factors are such as achievement recognition, the work itself,
responsibility, advancement & growth.
Job dissatisfaction factors or dissatisfaction or hygiene factors or
maintenance factors or job content factors or extrinsic factors are such
as company policy & administration, supervision, work conditions,
salary status, security & interpersonal relation.
Herzberg satisfied that satisfaction & dissatisfaction are not opposite
poles of one dimension rather they are two separate dimensions.
Satisfaction is affected by motivators & dissatisfaction by hygiene
factors.
Study the evaluation of need theories. (From Book) :The theory is inconsistent with previous research. The motivation hygiene theory
ignore situational variables.
ERG Theory :Alclerfer ERG Model :E – Existence
R – Relatedness
G – Growth
Existence needs corresponds to the necessary for basic human existence & is
equal to the physiological & safety needs of Maslow.
Relatedness needs corresponds to the desire for maintaining interpersonal
relations & similar to the social & extreme needs of Maslow.
Growth needs corresponds to the intrinsic desire for personal development i.e.
analogous to self estreme & self actualization needs of Maslow. However ERG
theory differs at three stages relating to Maslow need hierarchy theory.
1) It ERG theory hypothesis is only three stages.
2) ERG theory postulates that more than one need may be operative at the
same time where as need hierarchy theory postulates a rigid step like
progression.
3) Lastly ERG theory counters by nothing that when a higher level need is
frustrated the individuals desire to increase a lower level need takes place.
But Maslaw argues that a person will stay at a certain level until that need
is satisfied. This deviation implies inability to establish a need for social
interaction, for instance, might incrase the desire for more money or for
better working conditions. Thus the ERG theory contains a frustration
regression dimension.
Need Frustration
Desired Strength
Frustration
of growth
needs
Frustration of
relatedness
needs
Frustration of
existence
needs
Importance
of growth
needs
Importance of
relatedness
needs
Importance
of
existence needs
Need
Satisfaction
growth needs
of
Satisfaction
of
relatedness needs
Satisfaction
of
existence needs
Satisfaction - Progression
Frustration - Regression
Note : - Evaluation (To find out Merites & demerits) of all ned theories are
imp.
CLASS 12.
COMMUNICATION
Meaning & Definition –
It is important because it influences interpersonal behaviour in organisation
communication may also be defined as the process of exchanging
information & understanding between peoples. Communication focuses on
three important issues.
1) It involves transmission & reception of messages but it is not
possible to transmit meaning, attitude, perception, and belief
on feeling in cent percent.
2) Communication always involves at least two people namely
sender & receiver. Earlier emphasis was given on senders
skill, but now move emphasis is being given on receivers art
of listening to make communication effective.
3) Communication is best described as a process because it is
active, continuous, reciprocal & dynamic.
Importance of Communication –
1) It is important for managers to perform their basic functions
of planning, organizing, leading & controlling.
2) Written & oral communications at a time is more effective.
3) Time spent for communication is very vital. Sometime the
patience of receiver is also highly essential,
4) Communication is more significant in serving four major
management functions like control, motivation, emotional
expression & information.
5) It plays a major role in charging people attitudes.
6) It is the essence of social behaviour.
7) There are two points of communication. Mainly they are –
a) Inter-personal Communication
b) Organisational Communication
a) Process of Inter-personal Communication –
Modulated
Message
Sender
Modulated
Demodulated
Message
Encoding
Modulated
Message
Channel
Decoding
Message
Receiver
Noise
Feed Back Message
Different Type of Communication –
1) One way & two way communication –
In one way communication the sender communicators without
expecting a feedback from the receiver.
EX – Policy statement from top management. But in case of two way
communication the receiver provide feedback to the sender.
2) Two way communication –
Two way communication is more accurate than one way
communication. It increases self-confidence of the receiver. But it
consumes more time in comparison to one way communication. One
way communication seems to be more orderly than two way
communication. It also noisy & somewhat chactic.
3) Verbal & Non-verbal Communication –
Verbal communication refers to the exchange of a message through the
use of written or spoken symbols. Apart from this any other ways of
communications like a persons to tone of voice , facial characteristic,
eye behaviour, head-nodding, nose thumbing, thumb movement are all
non-verbal type of communication. When verbal & non-verbal
messages contradict each other we believe the non-verbal more.
It has been suggested that the total impact of a message is a function of
the following.
Total impact = 0.07 verbal + 0.38 vocal + 0.55 facial
4) Good & Effective Communication –
A good communication is that where the receiver correctly understands
the message. Here understanding is the goal. But effective
communication is that by which the sender influences. The receiver to
achieved the desired goal through desired behaviour. It involves other
aspects of behaviour like motivation, leadership & power.
CLASS 13.
Barriers of Effective Communication –
1) Sender related barriers –
a) Communication Goals – Goal on objective of communication must
be well defined.
b) Communication Skills – It refers to the clarity of thought, correct
usage of words, grammatical accuracy, proper delivery of messages,
correct spelling or pronunciation & proper organisation of sentences or
speeches of sender.
c) Inter-personal Sensitiving – A sender always should aware of the
level of sensationof the receiver. Any sort of communication will
detriate the interpersonal relation which will lead non achievement of
goal.
d) Differing frames of reference – Encoding & decoding process should
be based upon a common field of experience. Lack of shared
experience may result in miss-communication.
e) Inconsistent non-verbal signals – The tone of voice facial expression
& gesture & posture of human being hinder the communication. For
example- certain type of quarrel at home makes the forms shout &
speak angrily over his sub-ordinates at work place.
Either or thinking – A person’s thinking & perception changes
according to time taken when learning increases. Once a person
improves his/her thought process, it is very normal that he always
thinks either or terms.
Fear – Under the influence of fear, a person is likely to lose balance,
which affect the communication adversely. It also alters the sender
about the effective transmitting of message.
CLASS 14.
GROUP
Group is a collection of individuals who have regular contact and frequent
interaction, mutual influence, common feeling of camaraderie, and who work
together to achieve a common set of goals.
TYPES OF GROUP
1. Formal group:
This group is defined by the organizational structure. After planning,
organizations group the activities and put those under a formal structure, deciding
their goals and objectives and strategies to achieve the same. Formal group
members report to their superiors and interact with each other to achieve the
common goals.
Usually a formal group comprises those whose nature of job is more or less
homogeneous. In a shop floor a gang engaged in doing the same job, represents a
formal group. Similarly, in a call- centre, all out-bound callers handling the same
customer account represent a formal group. Thus, formal group is formed based
on job specialization and similarity of skill-sets to reap the advantages of division
of labour.
2. Command group:
This group is also known as task group. A task is defined as cross-functional
activities, carried out by group members to accomplish a common goal. A team
represents the nature of a command group. A command group can be formed by
drawing members from various formal groups. For example, to achieve success
in new product launches, organizations may form a command group. Once the
task is achieved, group members may be sent back to their specific formal
groups.
3. Committees:
To achieve results, organizations often form permanent or temporary committees,
drawing members from various formal groups. Committees also represent the
presence of cross-functional members. While for a command group, goals may
be specific, for committees, it is varied.
For example, to ensure better transparency and accuracy in purchase decisions,
various members drawn from the user sections such as, finance, marketing, HR
and s, may represent a Tender Purchase Committee (TPC), in an organization.
Such committees may be permanent in nature. Again, there may be the presence
of temporary committees in organizations, who may be entrusted to achieve
temporary goals such as a committee to probe into a case of fund embezzlement
against a particular member.
4. Informal groups:
Informal groups are formed within a formal organizational structure. Informal
group members primarily meet the social or affiliation needs sharing their
commons interests. Thus informal groups are not organizationally determined;
the members themselves from such groups to fulfil their needs for social
interaction.
In a particular organization, functional proximity primarily determines the
formation of informal groups. These apart, like-minded people, that is, those who
have the same personality and attitude constructs or those who belong to similar
status (in terms of hierarchy or economic status) also form informal groups. The
constructive use of informal groups may benefit an organization. However,
inefficient management may render informal groups counter-productive.
An informal group may be a friendship group, interest group, reference group, or
membership group. Friendship groups are formed by like-minded people; those
who have common interests form interest groups; reference groups are formed
based on the compatibility of decisions and opinions; while membership groups
are formed for the affiliation related needs.
CLASS 15.
Why do people join group?
1.Security--reduce the insecurity of "standing alone"; feel stronger, fewer self
doubts, and more resistant to threats
2. Status--inclusion in a group viewed by outsiders as important; provides
recognition and status
3. Self-esteem--provides feelings of self-worth to group members, in addition to
conveying status to outsiders
4. Affiliation--fulfills social needs, enjoys regular interaction; can be primary
source for fulfilling need for affiliation
5. Power--what cannot be achieved individually often becomes possible; power
in numbers
6. Goal achievement--some tasks require more than one person; need to pool
talents knowledge or power to complete the job. in such instances management
may rely on the use of a formal group
Group Dynamics: Types, Formation of Groups and Group Cohesiveness!
A group may be defined as set of people who have the same interests or
objectives and who organize themselves to work together and strive towards a
common goal.
According to Shaw, “Group is defined as two or more persons who are
interacting with each other in such a manner that each person influences and is
influenced by each other.”
A group is characterized by the following features:
i. a common motive or goal and shared attitudes
ii. a hierarchical group structure i.e., clearly defined role for each member
iii. standard norms of behavior
iv. Influence of interaction with each other.
Groups exist in every organization and it is believed that “an organization will
function best when its personnel function not as individuals but as members of
highly effective work groups with high performance goals.”
As groups are essential for organizational functioning, they are either created by
the organization itself in order to facilitate division of labor for achieving its subgoals and ultimately its ultimate goal or groups are created automatically, as a
result of the socio-psychological factors at the workplace. The study of group
dynamics provides understanding of groups.
The term ‘group dynamics’ is formed by the combination of the two words
‘group’ and ‘dynamics.’ While ‘group’ refers to two or more individuals sharing
an explicit socio-psychological relationship, ‘dynamics’ refers to the forces
within the group that shape the patterns of interaction between group members
i.e., the power or capacity of a group member to change or influence change in
other members according to changed circumstances.
There are 3 views about group dynamics:
1. First view describes how a group should be organized and conducted, stressing
more on democratic leadership and members’ participation.
2. Second view describes the techniques used in group dynamics, for instance,
role playing, leaderless groups, brainstorming, group therapy, transactional
analysis etc.
3. Third view describes group dynamics from the perspective of internal nature of
groups; the structure, processes, reasons and methods of their formation, their
influence within the group, with other groups and with the organization.
The three views can be summarized by describing group dynamics as a study of
the nature and development of groups.
Types of Groups:
There are two types of groups in every organization:
Formal groups and Informal groups
1. Formal Groups:
An organization creates and maintains formal groups to fulfill needs or tasks that
are included in its mission or organizational goals. In order to achieve its ultimate
goal, an organization creates sub-goals which it assigns to different units or
departments. These formal groups created by the organization itself are regulated
by the organizational rules and regulations.
Life of the formal groups may be permanent or temporary depending upon the
specific objectives to be fulfilled. Examples of permanent formal groups are
board of directors, managing committees etc. and temporary formal groups are
exemplified by task force or temporary committees created to fulfill certain
specified objectives.
2. Informal Groups:
Informal groups are created voluntarily and spontaneously due to the sociopsychological forces operating in the workplace. Individuals working together
often develop liking for each other and socialize with each other to overcome the
psychological fatigue, boredom and monotony associated with their work.
Informal groups are formed as they satisfy the social needs of individuals while
at work. As they are not created by the organization, the working of informal
groups is not regulated by organizational rules and regulations.
As informal groups are smaller in size as compared to formal groups groupcohesiveness is easy to maintain. In-spite of this, informal groups are not very
stable. The instability is primarily due to the personality differences between the
members of the informal group.
An individual having the capacity to fulfill maximum needs of group members
emerges as the informal leader and remains till the members think him capable of
it. They are neither formed nor abolished by the management, rather if the
management ever tries to abolish informal groups, then it may lead to alienation
of employees as a protest against the management’s actions.
Jeff Lane was at his wits end. As a newly appointed production manager, he had
tried virtually everything to get his workers to achieve the production targets. The
equipment was operating properly, and the group had the training and experience
to meet expectations, yet it was not performing well. What was wrong? And what
could he do to correct the situation?
Managers and supervisors frequently face such a dilemma. What Jeff Lane and
other managers/supervisors sometimes fail to realize is that within every
organization there are often informal group pressures that influence and regulate
individual behavior.
Informal groups formulate an unspoken set of standards establishing acceptable
behaviour In Jeff’s department, the informal group may have established a norm
below that set by the organization. They were working to reach the target set by
their group as they had decided that the targets set by their managers was not
acceptable to their group members.
Dynamics of informal Groups:
Informal groups almost always arise if opportunities exist. If management
prescribes production norms that the group considers unfair, the group’s recourse
is to adopt less demanding norms and to use its ingenuity to discover ways in
which it can sabotage management’s imposed standards. Thus they counteract the
tendency of the organization to get more output from the workers.
Informal groups have a powerful influence on the effectiveness of an
organization. But the informal group’s role is not limited to resistance. The
impact of the informal group upon the larger formal group depends on the norms
that the informal group sets. So the informal group can make the formal
organization more effective, too.
A norm is an implied agreement among the group’s membership regarding how
members in the group should behave. From the perspective of the formal group,
norms generally fall into three categories-positive, negative, and neutral,’ In other
words, norms either support, obstruct, or have no effect on the aims of the larger
organization.
For example, if the informal group in Jeff’s shop set a norm supporting high;
output, that norm would have been more powerful than any attempt by Jeff to
force compliance with the standard. The reason is simple, yet profound.
The norm is of the group members own choice, and is not one imposed upon
them, There is a big motivational difference between being told what to do and
being anxious to do it.
If Jeff had been aware of group dynamics, he might have realized that informal
groups can be either his best friend or his worst enemy. He should’ have been
sensitive to the informal groups within his area and he should have cultivated
their goodwill and cooperation and made use of the informal group leadership.
That is, he should have wooed the leadership of the informal group and enlisted
the support of its membership to achieve the formal organization’s aims.
For harnessing the power of informal groups one should have:
1. An understanding of group dynamics and,
2. An ability to bring about changes in informal group norms that positively
reinforce the formal organization’s goals.
Formation of Informal Work Groups:
Individuals are employed by an organization to perform specific functions. The
organization is only concerned with the job done by an individual-the output.
Because people have needs that extend beyond the work itself, informal groups
develop to fill certain emotional, social, and psychological needs. The degree to
which a group satisfies its members’ needs, determines the limits within which
individual members of the group will allow their behavior to be controlled by the
group.
Sense of Belonging:
Several major functions are served by informal groups. For example, the group
serves as a means of satisfying the affiliation needs of its members for friendship
and support. People need to belong, to be liked, to feel a part of something.
Because the informal group can withhold this attractive reward, it earns the
power to exploit group members to comply with its norms.
Identity and self esteem:
Groups also provide a means of developing, enhancing, and confirming a
person’s sense of identity and self-esteem. Although many organizations attempt
to recognize these higher needs, the nature of some jobs-their technology and
environment-precludes this from happening. The long assembly line or endless
rows of desks reinforce a feeling of depersonalization.
Stress Reduction:
By developing a consensus about their feelings, group members are able to
reduce the anxiety associated with their jobs. For instance, several individuals
may share the feeling that their supervisor is a slave driver or that their working
conditions are inadequate.
All for One, One for All:
Joining forces in a small group makes the members feel stronger, less anxious,
and less insecure in the face of a perceived threat. As long as needs exist that are
not served by the formal organization, informal groups will form to fill the gap.
Since the group fills many important needs for its members, it influences member
behavior.
Leadership of Informal Work Groups:
Informal groups possess certain characteristics that can be used to advantage.
While many of these characteristics are similar to those of formal organizations,
others are unique. One attribute of informal groups is rotational leadership.
The informal leader emerges as the individual possessing qualities that the other
members perceive as critical to the satisfaction of their specific needs at the
moment; as the needs change so does the leader. Only rarely does a single
individual possess all of the leadership characteristics needed to fill the various
needs of the group.
Unlike the formally appointed leader who has a defined position from which to
influence others, the informal leader does not possess formal power. If the
informal leader fails to meet the group’s expectations, he or she is deposed and
replaced by another.
The supervisor can use several strategies to affect the leadership and harness the
power of informal groups. One quick and sure method of changing a group is to
cause the leader to change one or more of his or her characteristics. Another is to
replace the leader with another person.
One common ploy is to systematically rotate out of the group its leaders and its
key members. Considering the rotational nature of leadership, a leader may
emerge who has aims similar to the formal goals of the organization.
The supervisor can attempt to ‘co-opt’ informal leaders by absorbing them into
the leadership or the decision-making structure of the formal group and thereby
make the formal organizations more stable. However, a leader may lose favor
with the group because of this association with management, and group members
will most likely select another leader.
Communications Network—the Grapevine:
In the informal group, a person who possesses information vital to the group’s
functioning or well-being is frequently afforded leadership status by its members.
Also, the centrally located person in the group is in the best position to facilitate
the smooth flow of information among group members.
Knowing about informal group communication the supervisor can provide a
strategically placed individual with information needed by the group. This not
only enhances the stature of this individual perhaps elevating him or her to a
leadership position but also provides an efficient means of distributing
information.
Providing relevant information to the group will also help foster harmony
between the supervisor and the informal group. By winning the cooperation of
informal group leaders the supervisor will most likely experience fewer
grievances and better relationships.
Group Cohesiveness:
Another characteristic of informal groups is group cohesiveness-the force that
holds a group together. It is the degree of unity in a group. The more is the unity
between the group members, more is the power associated with the group.
According to Walker, “Cohesiveness may be defined as the resultant power of a
group to think and act as a single unit in pursuit of a common objective.”
According to Likert, “Cohesiveness is the attractiveness of the members to the
group or resistance of the members to leaving it.”
According to Seashore, ”Group cohesiveness is the attraction of the members to
the group in terms of the strength of forces on the individual members to remain
active in the group and to resist leaving it.”
A cohesive group is one in which all the members work towards a common goal
by taking responsibilities voluntarily and leave no stone unturned in their efforts
to achieve their common goal. An effective leader plays a major role in keeping
the members close knit, thereby increasing the group cohesiveness.
Group cohesiveness varies widely based on numerous factors-including the:
a. Size of the group-smaller groups has more cohesiveness.
b. Dependence of members upon the group-more the dependence more will be
the group cohesiveness
c. Achievement of goals-If all members are in unison regarding achieving
common goals, their group cohesiveness increases the chances of their being
successful in achieving their goals.
d. Status of the group-high status group has more loyal members that confirm to
the norms of the group.
e. Management demands and pressures—group cohesiveness increases strongly
whenever the membership perceives a threat from the outside. This threat
produces the high anxiety that strong group cohesiveness can help reduce.
If the supervisor presses the group to conform to a new organizational norm that
is viewed as a threat to the security needs of group members, the group will
become more unified in order to withstand the perceived threat. With the passing
of the threat the group tends to lose its cohesiveness.
Supervisors can use the factors that affect group cohesiveness in favor of the
management. For instance a supervisor can involve the informal group members
in the decision-making process.
Input from group members will not only reduce their feeling of alienation but
also improve communication between the supervisor and subordinates thereby
reducing potential conflict. Where group participation in decision making is not
practical the supervisor should carefully explain the reasons to play down what
might be seen as a threat to the group.
CLASS 16.
Process/Stages of Group Development/Evolution:
Group Development is a dynamic process. How do groups evolve? There is a
process of five stages through which groups pass through. The process includes
the five stages: forming, storming, forming, performing, and adjourning.
Forming:
The first stage in the life of a group is concerned with forming a group. This
stage is characterized by members seeking either a work assignment (in a formal
group) or other benefit, like status, affiliation, power, etc. (in an informal group).
Members at this stage either engage in busy type of activity or show apathy.
Storming:
The next stage in this group is marked by the formation of dyads and triads.
Members seek out familiar or similar individuals and begin a deeper sharing of
self. Continued attention to the subgroup creates a differentiation in the group
and tensions across the dyads / triads may appear. Pairing is a common
phenomenon. There will be conflict about controlling the group.
Norming:
The third stage of group development is marked by a more serious concern about
task performance. The dyads/triads begin to open up and seek out other members
in the group. Efforts are made to establish various norms for task performance.
Members begin to take greater responsibility for their own group and relationship
while the authority figure becomes relaxed. Once this stage is complete, a clear
picture will emerge about hierarchy of leadership. The norming stage is over with
the solidification of the group structure and a sense of group identity and
camaraderie.
Performing:
This is a stage of a fully functional group where members see themselves as a
group and get involved in the task. Each person makes a contribution and the
authority figure is also seen as a part of the group. Group norms are followed and
collective pressure is exerted to ensure the Process of Group effectiveness of the
group.
The group may redefine its goals Development in the light of information from
the outside environment and show an autonomous will to pursue those goals. The
long-term viability of the group is established and nurtured.
Adjourning:
In the case of temporary groups, like project team, task force, or any other such
group, which have a limited task at hand, also have a fifth stage, This is known as
adjourning.
The group decides to disband. Some members may feel happy over the
performance, and some may be unhappy over the stoppage of meeting with group
members. Adjourning may also be referred to as mourning, i.e. mourning the
adjournment of the group.
The readers must note that the four stages of group development mentioned
above for permanent groups are merely suggestive. In reality, several stages may
go on simultaneously
CLASS 17.
MODULE – III
LEADERSHIP: Layman definition says “Leadership” is the capacity to translate vision into
Leadership is the progress of encouraging & helping others to work
enthusiastically towards objectives. Leadership is “interpersonal influence,
exercised in a situation & divided through the communication process towards
the attainment of a specified goal on goals.” Leadership is the relationship in
which one person influences others to work together willingly on related tasks to
action goals desired by the leader and/on group.
What is the essence of Leadership: From the definition of leadership it is clearly that the essence of leadership are:
1) Refers to the ability of one individual to influence others.
2) The influence is exercised to change the behaviour of others.
3) Behaviour is change through non
4) Change of behaviour is caused with an objective of achieving a shared
goal.
5) The person influenceing others (Leader) possesses a set of qualities or
characteristics which he used to influence others.
6) Leadership is a group phenomenon. It includes interaction between two or
more people.
Leadership & Management: -
Management is a process of forecasting planning, organizing, co-ordinating,
directing & controlling the activities of others.
Management ship is the authority to caring out these functions.
Leadership is the process of influencing for the purpose of achieving shared
goals.
Q- What is the difference between Leader and Manager?
Leader
Manager
1) Leader have followers
Subordinates
follow
managerial authority not
manager
2) Leaders have emotional appeal. He has a great
2) Leaders fulfill followers
need. They emphasis on
satisfying their followers
need.
Managers are emphasis on
fulfilling
organizational
need.
3) Leader are doing right thing
Managers have to do things
right.
Leader posses certain power to influence his followers. Those powers are:
a) Reward Power
b) Power
c) Legitimate Power
d) Expert Power
e) Referent Power
Followers Influence on Leader: a) Responses or performance of subordinates.
b) Characteristics of subordinates namely, male or female, young or
old, personal background and the like.
c) The nature of the task.
d) Organizational policy and climate.
e) Peers and their influence on the leader and positive influence of
suspensions on the leader.
Style of Leadership: a) Authoritarian Style
b) Participative Style
Consatative
Consensual
Demo
c) Free rein style or Laissez faive Style
CLASS 18.
Theories of Leadership: The behaviour of the leader has greater impact than the personality of him. When the
leader delegates task to subordinates and communicate with his followers, the followers
emphasis on the behavioural pattern of him. But now a days it is completely depending
on the situation in which the leader operates. Therefore it is found a complete leadership
has three important dimensions. These are;
1) The leader & his psychological attributes.
2) The followers with his problem, attitudes & needs.
3) The group situation in which followers & leaders relate with one another.
Basing on the above factors these are certain theories developed. These theories are,
1) Trait Theory
2) Leader behaviour Theory
3) Contingency Theory
4) The managerial Grid
5) The VDL Theory.
Note: 1, 2, 3 are in syllabus.
Four key Leader behaviour
High Relation & Low High Task & High Relation
Task
(Participative Style)
(Supportive Style)
Low Task & Low High
Task
&
Low
Relationship
Relationship
(Free- Rein Style)
(Automatic Style)
Low People
High
Emphasis
Low Task Emphasis
1) Trait Theory –
This theory says a leader posses a set of traits which make him distinct from
followers. So emphasis was given to find out those theories basing on some
survey.
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)
h)
i)
j)
Ralph stogdiu a theorist studies almost all 5000 leaders & put some
successful traits. These are,
A strong desire for accomplishment.
Persistent pursuit of goal.
Creativity & intelligence used to solve problems.
Initiative applied to social situation.
Self assumed personality.
Willingness to accept behavioural consequences.
Low susceptibility of interpersonal stress.
High tolerance of ambiguity.
Ability to influence other people.
Ability to structure social interactions.
Unsuccessful & in effective leaders and associated certain traits like poor
temperament self centeredness, inability to get health problems such as aggression,
depression, disorganization, paranoia (tear of prosecution), neurosis (mild mental
disorder) and procrastination (delay)
Evaluation of The Trait Theory Limitations of the theory are,
1) Successful leaders have a very long list of personality traits. But no consistent
pattern has emerged for it.
2) A successful leader should posses certain traits but upto which extend the trait
supposed to be uncertain, there was no specification. Mainly the psychological
traits can’t be quantified.
3) The theory assumed that a leader is born and not trained, this assumption is not
acceptable to the contemporary thinkers on the subject.
4) The effectiveness of leader not only depend on its personality but also on the
situation, the task the organization & the characteristic of followers.
5) It is seen some traits of successful leader are also equally seen with some
people who fail as leaders & who never achieve position of leadership.
6) There is little consensus on the meaning of words used to label traits.
Merits of Traits Theory –
1) Focusing on personality traits of a . It was studied that leaders tend to be
consistently better adjusted, more dominant, more extroverted, more masaline
& more conservative & have greater interpersonal sensitive.
2) A leader’s effectiveness mainly influenced others if he is fundamentally acts as
a person.
3) The personality of man is his inner life including such inner elements as back
ground life history, beliefs, life experiences, attitude, prejudices, self-imagine,
tears, love, hates, hopes & philosophy of life.
4) Good managers does not posses resistance reactions.
5) Individuals who is a good leader naturally more aggressive, more decisive &
more than other people.
6) The theory has certain practical implication also.
2) Behavioural Theory –
This theory emphasis on two aspects.
 Behaviour of a leader
 Follower’s performance & satisfaction.
Ohio State University Studies The main objective of the study was,
a) To identify the major dimensions of leadership.
b) To investigate the effect of leader behaviour on employee performance &
satisfactions.
From the study two leadership dimensions were identified basing on a list of
leader behaviour & a variety of situations. These are given below:1) The initiating structure – This refers to the leader behaviour that detives
& organizes, a) the group task b) assigns the tasks to employees c) super
2) Consideration Behaviour – This refers to behaviour to friendliness,
respect, supportiveness, openness,frust & concern for the task of the
employees.
The specified continu & types of leader from the findings of Ohio State
University Studies given below.
Human
Relation
Remo
Laisser
Out Comes of The Study –
1) Consideration behaviour was positively relates to how absenteeism & guievana
but it was negatively on neutrally related to performance.
2) Initiating structure was positively related to employee performance but
associated with such negative consequences as absentcism & gui
3) When both are high, performance & satisfaction tended to be high. But in some
cases high productivity was accompanied by absentecism & guievatices.
The University of Michigan Studies:It is all most similar to Ohio state study. Here also two dimensions of
leadership are considered. They are1.
Production – Contered – Here leader set rigid work
standards organized tasks down to the last detail, prescribed
the work methods to be followed & closely supervised
subordinates performance.
2.
Employee-centered – Here leaders encouraged employee
participation in goal setting & in other work related
decisions & helped ensure high performance by inspiring
respect & trust.
The continuum for Michigan Study was given.
Production
Centered Leadership
Employee
Centered Leadership
Evaluation of Behaviour Theory The main focus of this theory was on the behaviour of leader like what leaders did, how
they delegated the tasks, how they communicated with & tried to motivate their
subordinates, how carried out their tasks & so on. The theory specifies the behaviour can
be learnt & an individual trained in the appropriate leadership behaviour would be able to
lead more efficiently. This was the main contribution of the theory. However a consistent
relationship between leadership behaviour & group performance could not be established.
The considerations of the situational factors were missing which influence success or
failure.
CLASS 19.
Contingency Theory of LeadershipThese theories of leadership are derived from the basic proposition that the most effective
behaviour for leaders to engage in contingency upon characteristics of the situation in
which the leader find themselves.
This theory will suggest under which condition employee oriented leadership will make
effective then a production oriented one.
There are most popular contingency theories of leadership. They are given below,
1. Fredun’s Theory –
This model postulates that effectiveness of a leader depends upon his motivational
style & the favorableness of the situation. At 1st case it is evident that leaders are
motivated by either interpersonal relations or task-goal accomplishment. At 2nd
case it is indicate that up to which extend the leader has control over the situation.
2. Leader’s motivational Traits – ( The path goal theory)
Leader differs in their style. But mainly either they are relastion oriented on task
oriented. However the motivational style of a leader are measured through the least
preferred co-workers i.e. L.P.C. concept.
With reference to the L.P.C the leaders are asked to describe a person on a
Pleasant -------------------- Unpleasant
87654321
Rejecting ------------------- Accepting
12345678
Helpful ------------------- Frustrating
87654321
Open ---------------------- Granded
87654321
It the score will be totaled & averaged then depending on the L.P.C. score is a
suggestion.
That is if a high L.P.C. is scored, it implies that the leader has relation-oriented. If
a low L.P.C. is scored, it implies the leader has task-oriented.
Fiedeen’s logic is that individuals who rate their least preferred co-worker in a
relatively favorable height on these scales derived satisfaction out of interpersonal
relations & who rate the co-worker in a relatively unfavourable light get
satisfaction out of successful fast performance.
Situational Factors are per Fiedder _
Fiedder said the situation is favourable to the leader when he has influence &
control over his sub-ordinates performance. He also suggested there hypothesis to
determine situational favourability. Those are,
1. Leader-member relations
2. Task structure
3. Position power
The leader influence & control are high if he rely on the loyality of his subordinates & relationship with them is good. A high degree of task structure
contributes to a favourable situation for the leader & helps him to influence &
control the behaviour of his sub-ordinates. Position power comprises formal
authority & reward power. The greater the power, the greater the leaders control
over his sub-ordinates & the more favourable the situation for him. When these
three situations are combined a high favourable situation occurs. Therefore it can
be concluded by saying a high control situation occurs where the leader has good
leader member relations, high structured task & strong position power.
A Good Leadership Match –
In high two control situations a task oriented leader will perform better then a
relation oriented.
In moderate control situation a relation oriented leader will perform well.
Diagram:
Evaluation of Contingency TheoryFirst of the merits of this theory are,
1. It gives explicit attention to the leader, the situation & the sub-ordinates.
2. It represents an improvement over all earlier theories. It makes the
identification work of leader very simple & provides an useful theoretical
framework for future research.
3. is a programmed learning technique that trains leaders to modify situation to
fit their personality. So it helps in designing training program for leader.
Demerits:1. In the model some variables meaning is not clear, like it is difficult to classify
task as structured or unstructured in an absolute sense. Since there are relative
concept.
2. it lacks a theoretical orientation. It has a predictive power but lacks an
explanatory power.
3. Also it is not clear regarding what LPL scale measures. It is a question that,”
why a leader considered relation motivated when he describe LPC scale in
positive terms & why a task motivated in measuring LPC scale in a negative
terms”.
4. LPC does not reveal the leader behaviour but suggests only his feeling towards
his least preferred co-worker.
5. It ignores attention to the actual technical components of the leader an the subordinates.
What are the good characters of a leader? 1. A leader should understand that leadership is a two way influencing process.
2. The leader should be a competent & confident person.
3. The leader should be an intellectual person having very innovative & creative
thought process.
4. He must have very good knowledge about the political economic, social &
cultural operating beyond his componey gate.
5. He must have a clear vision & mission.
6. Communication skill is an essential faction for a leader.
7. A leader should not ignore to show courage to take quick decision particularly
at the time of crisis.
8. He must be a person of good temperament & must not be selfish.
9. He should posses all sort
10.Sincerity & character & good moral are nothing but his ornaments.
11.He should be a good learner, know the trick of delegating duties to their
subordinates, good communication & motivates in influencing his followers.
12.Contingency theory suggested the leader to examine the situation (environment)
i.e. the people, task & the organization.
13.It also emphasis on the flexibility of implementing various skill within an
overall style.
14.Thus a successful leader does not have one vbest way of doing things. He needs
to follow different styles suiting different situations. Making a particular style
to a specific situation is the essence of effective leadership.
15.A tranngis for mational leadership style characterized by distinct skills. They
are;
a) Anticipatory Skills
b) Visionary Skills
c) Value or Congruence Skills
d) Employment Skills
e) Self understanding Skills
CLASS 20.
CONFLICT
Conflict is understood as collision or disagreement. Conflict defined by Chung &
Megginson as,” the struggle between incompatible or opposing needs, wishes, ideas,
interests or people. Conflict arises when individuals or groups encounter goals that both
parties can’t obtain satisfaction.”
Competition takes place when individuals or groups have incompleatible goal but do not
interfere with each other as they try to obtain their respective goals.
One good example is the sports. In sports like football, hockey & cricket both
competition conflict are seen where as in playing cards, athletics like running, long jump
& high jump etc only competition is seen.
Nature of Conflict1. Semantic problem (confusion between conflict and competition)
Ex: In sports football, hockey & cricket in category of conflict by all athletics are
2. Changing of traditional view & current view. According current view conflict is
inevitable. It arises from many causes, including organizational structure,
unavoidable differences in goals, differences in perceptions & values of specialized
personnel & so on conflicts contributes positive & negative factors both to
organizational performance in various degrees. The organizational performance
may fall down or management to manage the level of conflict & its resolution for
optimal organization performance. Organizational performance will be achieved at
moderate level of conflict.
3. Functional Conflict.
It refers to between two ideas, goal & parties that improve employee & the
organizations performance. It conflicts managed properly, it helps employees to
forecast anticipate problems in advance & contributes to find out alternatives
solutions for solving those. It boots to develop self confident, strengthen their
relationship with organisation well managed conflict resolution helps employee to
become committed to the organisation. A relation between organizational
performance & conflict may be shown as a plot given below.
Diagram:This implies at moderate conflict the
performance of organisation is optimum.
4. Dysfunctional Conflict.
It & prevents organizational goal from being achieved. It teans relationships apart
& interfere with the exchange of ideas, information & resources in groups &
between departments.
5. The process of Conflict.
Stage-1
Protential
Opposition
Stage-II
Cognition &
personalization
Stage-III
Behaviour
Stage-IV
Outcome
Received
Conflict
Increased
group
performance
Reasons for
conflicts exist
Ovent conflict
Decrease
group
performance
Felt conflict
Interpersonal Conflict or Inter Individual Conflicts: It is the conflict occurs between two individuals in an organisation. It arrises mainly
because of differences in perception, personalities values systems, socio-cultural
factors & role ambiguities. Transactional analysis seek to explain the phenomenon of
inter personal conflict.
Transactional Analysis:- (TA)
The interaction between two people results a social transactional. The analysis of this
social transactional is known as transactional analysis (TA). It was first introduced by
Eric Berne & popularizes by Thomas Harnis in the year 1960. a formal definition of
TA may be given as “the study of moves people make in their dealings with each
other & is based on the ideas that peoples interaction resembles move in games.”
TA has been widely accepted because of its range of advantages. They are,
1)
The basic fundamentals of TA are simple to learn.
2)
The validity of TA is demonstrable & somebody can feel it.
3)
It provides the technique of reduction of the bad feelings experienced by
someone.
4)
It increases efficient use of time.
5)
It helps in effective communication.
6)
It can be applied at home.
7)
It reinforces & implements managements functions like development
programe, communication leadership brain storming. MBO, job enrichment
conflict resolution etc.
TA has certain limitations. They are,
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
Only a few of its outcomes are scientifically proved.
Ego states, basic to understand & utilized TA, are difficult to define.
If inappropriately applied TA tends to encourage
TA jargon may lead to move than insight into human encounter.
It can be used as a put down on a discount in interpersonal relations.
TA bases on human ego status. A human being has three ego states. They are
parent ego (taught) states, adult ego (thinking) states & child ego (felt) state.
Parent Ego State:- Parent posses “taught” ego state. The personality of a person
under parent ego state will be authoritative, dogmatic, open protective, controlling,
nurturing, critical & righteous.
The Adult Ego State:- The adult is the “thinking” ego state. Under this state the
personality of a person represents the naturity level, nationality & object oriented.
In this state people don’t act impulsively on in adominecrity way. When an adult
deals with other people it is characterized by fairness & objectively.
The Child Ego State:- It represents the childish dependent of immature part of a
persons personality., behaviours that are influenced by this ego state are laden with
emotion, insubondination, joy on rebellion child is the “felt” ego state.
Social Transactions –
Berne said that “whenever people talk, they interact from these ego state”.
Depending on the kinds of ego states involved, the interaction can be either
a) Complimentary
b) Crossed
c) Ulterior
Diagram:
a) Complimentary Translation:The message sent will receive an expected response.
P ------- P, A --------- A, P -------- A , & C -------- C
Complimentary in nature, no scope of conflict in complimentary translation.
b) Crossed Translation:The sender sends a message but receive an unexpected response, which does
not satisfy the sender. The stimulus & response lines are not parallel. Therefore,
the sooner or later the sender withdraws from the interaction with the receiver
creating hunt feelings & frustrations.
c) Ulterior Translation:This causes much more damage to interpersonal relation. The ulterion
translations involve at least two ego states on the part of the sender. The
individual may say one thing (as an adult) but mean something quite different
(as a parent). These ulterion translations are the most difficult to identify & deal
with.
“Johari Window” : this method is highly useful in analyzing the causes for interpersonal conflict. It
is develpped by Joseph Tuft & Harvy Ingham. That is the reason it is named as
Johari Windows.
The persons knows abt others
The
persons
does’t
know
Abt others
The person knows
About himself or
Herself.
Open
area
1
self
2
public Hidden self private
or secret area
3
4
Blind self blind area Undiscovered
dark area
The person doesn’t know
About himself or herself.
Cell No - 1 – No conflict. Highest mutual understanding & friendship.
Cell No – 2 – Potential inter personal conflict. Fear for other reaction.
self
Cell No – 3 – Potential interpersonal conflict. Unintentionally hunting other.
Cell No – 4 – Potentially the most explosive situation. In this case
misunderstanding leads to interpersonal conflict.
To reduce the size of cell no 2, 3, & 4 somebody have better communication with
others.
Stroking –
It refers to recognition of one’s presence by others. Strokes may be
positive or negative. Strokes make other happy are known as positive
stroke. Examples are recognition, affection, cuddling, pat on the back
& pleasant smile. Negative strokes make others sad. Examples are
crificision, hatved & scold. Negative strokes cause interpersonal
conflict.
CLASS 21.
Conflict Resolution –
1) Strategies for resolving intra-personal conflict –
We know it arises from frustration, interference, competing roles or goals
having positive or negative aspect. This type of arised conflict can be solved by
realization, concentrating on own duty & responsibility. Goals conflict is of
three types. They are –
a) approach approach conflict, approach – avoidance conflict, & avoidance
– avoidance conflict.
Approach – approach conflict can be eliminated by practising theory of
cognitive dissonance. The theory state that the person experiencing
dissonance will be highly motivated to reduce on eliminate it & will actively
avoid situations & information which would increase it.
Approach – Avoidance conflict can be resolved by refusing to select either
approach or avoidance choice. This also can be resolved by the application
of the theory of cognitive dissonance.
Avoidance – avoidance conflict will be resolved by understanding the cause
of conflict. Sometime a sound counseling from the manager will be highly
effective to reduce this conflict.
Role conflict can be resolved by minimizing the no of roles & fixing
priorities for them. According to Hindu Philosophy intra-personal conflict
can be solved if someone satusic. Consists of purity, security, poise,
calmness discrimination, compassion, clarity, goodness, dispassion,
contentment etc.
2) Resolving Inter-personal Conflict –
The above methods are also applicable to resolve the inter-personal conflict. Other
approaches in addition to the above are –
b) Lose-lose b) Win-lose, c) Win-win, d) Transactional analysis e) By
changing behavioural input. Behaviour normally build up basing on
somebody else perceptions & attitude. The move accurate &
understanding the perception is the more conflict reduction happen.
Turning towards positive attitude a grate reduction will be in conflict
reduction.
3)
Resolving Inter-group Conflict –
All the above techniques are applicable in conflict reduction arising out of
inter-group conflict. In addition to that there are certain unique techniques
available which are given below. They are –
a) Problem solving – It emphasis on the attainment of the common interest.
Process of reconciliation is highly desire to solve the problem.
b) Organisation Redesign – By restructing organisation chart, it eliminates
arbitrary use of power.
c) Super ordinate Goals – By enlarging on broadening the organisation goal.
d) Expansion of Resources – Enhancement to budgetary allocation, promotions
etc also reduce inter-group conflict.
e) Avoidance – By withdrawing from conflict on by concealing the
incompatibility inter-group conflict may be resolved.
f) Smoother – It is the process of playing down the differences between
individuals or groups & highlighting their common interests is called
smoother. But it is recommended as a stopgap measure to let people cool
down & regain perspective.
g) Bargaining – Bargaining, collective bargaining or known as negotion
between groups or between organisation & group.
h) Compromise – If both the groups understand to not to activate the demand
rather to compromise then conflict can be resolved. In this case it may act as
a stimulation process.
CLASS 22.
Five Levels of Organizational Conflict
Conflicts will occur in any organization. In the 1970s, Kenneth Thomas and Ralph
Kilmann recognized that when management understands the reasons behind a conflict
and how serious the conflict is, a more positive outcome results. The two identified five
levels or styles of dealing with conflict and called these the Thomas-Kilmann Conflict
Mode Instrument. Understanding your personal level of conflict management allows for
better conflict resolution. Knowing which level to use in a situation helps management
bring an end to serious organizational conflict.
Competitive
At the competitive level, a person takes a position and sticks to it. Company owners and
upper management often negotiate from a competitive level of conflict resolution. With
the competitive level, the leader states what he wants. The leader should be persuasive
and have the knowledge to back up the request. This style is useful for fast decisions or
when there is a lot of resistance to change. If not careful, the person who uses this level of
conflict resolution may offend others.
Collaborative
At the collaborative level, all ideas are deemed important and considered. Collaboration
takes a look at all of the needs and opinions of a situation and tries to come up with a
solution that uses the best of those ideas. Kilmann, in his book "Introduction to Conflict
and Teams: Enhancing Team Performance Using the TKI," recommends using this style
when there is a history of extreme conflict in a group.
Compromising
The compromising level accomplishes a solution that keeps everyone partly happy.
However, each person will still need to give up something to come to a compromise.
Kilmann recommends the compromising level for situations where a deadline is knocking
at the door and the conflict prevents completing a project.
Accommodating
Use an accommodating level in situations where the outcome is not vital, but solving the
conflict is. Using this style means the leader gives up his own stance on a situation and
allows others their way. It can help bring peace to a volatile situation and build goodwill,
so when management must use a different level, employees are open to a more assertive
tone.
Avoiding
At the avoiding level, the person simply refuses to make a decision. Kilmann warns that
this is a particularly weak response to conflict but that it can be appropriate in situations
where the outcome does not matter. Another time to use this level is when there is a
person better suited to make the decision but he needs incentive to step into a leadership
role.
CLASS 23.
ORGANISATION CULTURE: MEANING AND FEATURES
According to Vijay Sathe, “Culture is the set of important understandings that
members of a community share in common.” It consists of patterned ways of thinking,
feeling, and reacting that are acquired by language and symbols that create a
distinctiveness among human groups. A system of shared values is the building block of
culture.
“Culture is to a human collectivise what personality is to an individual.... Culture
could be defined as the interactive aggregate of common characteristics that influence a
human group’s response to its environment. Culture determines the identity of a human
group in the same way as personality determines the identity of an individual. Moreover,
the two interact; “culture and personality” is a classic name of psychological
anthropology. Cultural traits sometimes can be measured by personality tests.
The study of organization culture is important because of the following reasons:
1. No organization can operate in isolation to its cultural environment. In
other words, organisations are social systems that must inevitably operate
to survive within the framework of a larger cultural system.
2. People in organization come from different cultural backgrounds. They
have different belies, customs, understandings, preferences, etc.
Features of Organization Culture
Features of organisational culture are as follows:
(i) The degree of responsibility and freedom and opportunities of exercising
initiative that individuals in the organization have.
(ii) The rules and regulations, and the amount of direct supervision that is
used to oversee and control employee behaviour.
(iii) The degree of assistance and warmth provided by managers to their
subordinates.
(iv) The degree to which members identify with the organization as a whole
rather than with their particular work-group or field of professional
expertise.
(v) The degree to which reward system in the organization (i.e., salary
increases, promotions) is based on employee performance criteria.
(vi) The degree of conflict present in relationships between peers and workgroups
as well as the willingness to be honest and open about differences.
(vii) The degree to which employees are encouraged to be innovative and risk
taking.
IMPACT OF CULTURE ON MODERN ORGANISATIONS
According to Keith Davis, the following values affect the modern organisations:
1. Equality: This value states that all people are equal, having equal rights.
However, this value gives due recognition to different mental, emotional
and social differences and hence different rewards. Another associated
78
idea is equity which states that there should be justice in rewarding
performance. The rewards should be based on performance which should
be measured objectively.
2. Security: People seek security of job and personal life. Some sort of
mental tension prevails in the mind of an employee as long as he feels
unsecure.
3. Freedom: It represents a basic cultural value that affects work in modern
organisations. Freedom here refers to freedom from authority and freedom
to do as one feels like, of course, subject to the constraints imposed by the
society. That is to say, this freedom is within some prescribed limits.
Freedom may mean different things to different people. For instance, for a
employee freedom may be have a voice in the joint council meeting, for
another it may mean right to work without restrictions etc.
4. Opportunity: Another value that affects people in organisations is the
opportunity. People expect many opportunities to climb the ladder in
organisation.
SOCIALISATION: FAMILIARISATION WITH
ORGANIZATION CULTURE
Socialisation is a process of indoctrinating the new employees into the
organization culture. The organization takes steps to get them adapt to its existing culture.
It socialises the new employees and moulds them to accept its standards and norms.
Socialisation is a process of adaptation by which employees are able to
understand the basic values, norms and customs for becoming the accepted members of
organization and assuming organisational roles. People who do not learn to adjust with
the culture of organisation are labelled as ‘rebels’ or ‘nonconformists’ and may even the
turned out of the organization. Socialisation performs two functions: (i) it creates uniform
behaviour in members, increases understanding, reduces conflicts, etc., and (ii) it reduces
role ambiguity of employees as they will come to know what is expected of them.
Maanen and Schein have conceptualised three stages in the process of
socialisation: pre-arrival, encounter and metamorphosis or transformation. These are
briefly discussed below:
1. Prearrival Stage
It denotes the period of learning in the socialisation process that occurs before a
new worker joins the organization. The new worker has a set of values, beliefs, attitudes
and expectations. Such factors must be taken care of at the selection stage. Those types of
people should be selected who might be able to fit into the organization’s culture. The
candidates must be made aware of the organisation’s values and expectations during the
selection process so that the chances of wrong selection are reduced to the minimum.
2. Encounter Stage
The employee enters this stage when he joins the organization. He comes to know
what the organization is really like and may find divergence between his expectations and
those of the organisation. If this is so, the new employee must undergo socialisation that
will detach him from his previous notions and assumptions about the organisation and
make him learn another set the organization deems desirable. This induction process is
helpful in many of the cases. But if the employee is not able to change his expectations
and adapt to the requirements of the organization, he might have to leave the
organisation.
80
3. Metamorphosis or Transformation Stage
Under this stage, the real transformation in the new employee takes place. He
adjusts to his work group’s values and norm’s and becomes comfortable with the
organisation and his job. His international of organisation’s culture wins him
acceptability among his colleagues and creates confidence in him. This makes him a
contented employee and the likes the place of work and enjoys the company of his
colleagues. As a result, he will feel committed to the organisation and his productivity
will increase. His search for job elsewhere will also come to an end. If, in any case, the
employee is not able to adapt himself to the organisation culture, the result will be low
productivity, lack of commitment and even leaving the organisation.
Organizational culture is the fundamental assumptions people share about an
organization’s values, beliefs, norms, symbols, language, rituals, and myths – all the
expressive elements that give meaning to organizational membership and are accepted as
guides to behavior. Most organizations develop patterns of cultural assumptions that
answer such fundamental questions as: How does our organization relate to its
environment? How do we learn and communicate? What do we expect of people and
relationships? What constitutes successful results? At what do we excel?
Strong culture is achieved when most members accept the interrelated assumptions that
form an internally consistent cultural system.
 Assumptions define relationships to the environment. Firms generally fit four
natural environmental profiles: reactive, defensive, accommodative, and proactive.
Most often these assumptions refer to the industry environment, related to
assumptions concerning customers, markets and competitors.
 Assumptions promote learning and communicating. Some organizations seek to
learn empirically through experimenting and gathering feedback. Others believe
truth is revealed intuitively or comes only from higher management. These issues
frame assumptions about management’s planning timeframe (short or long-term),
concepts of space and equity (open cubicles or private offices), and beliefs about
how to achieve innovation (driven by management or teams throughout the
organization). Language and communication norms also define organizational
reality.
 Assumptions tell about people and relationships. Organizations tend to develop
common assumptions about human nature and how people are to be treated. The
culture also reflects assumptions about who is to have power and how power is to
be used, which affects relationships among people.
 Assumptions link competencies to mission. Common assumptions about the
competencies with give them advantage in the market environment are held by
employees and managers. Assumptions about what constitutes technological
competencies and how to enable knowledge workers to create innovation differs
across organizational cultures. Organizations that develop technology-sharing
relationships or networks in collaboration with other organizations are more likely
to produce a sustained competitive advantage.
Organizational Value Systems
The assumptions most critical to organizational behavior are those shared values that lie
at the heart of human character and societal behavior. Values are the enduring beliefs and
expectations that a person or group hold to be important guides to behavior
The top five organizational values are:
1. Provide excellent service to customers.
2. Operate in a highly ethical manner at all times.
3. Provide products and/or services of excellent quality.
4. Consistently make a fair and reasonable profit (not maximize profits).
5. Staff the organization with high-caliber employees from top to bottom.
An organization’s values convey what behaviors and beliefs are important to its success.
A set of values becomes an organizational value system when those core values are
shared by the majority of organizational members, typically differentiated by the origin
and content of those enduring values. Organizational values originate from either
charismatic leadership or organizational traditions.
Charismatic-based values originate from a strong leader, usually the founder, which tend
to be internalized by members as long as they look to the leader for guidance and
inspiration.
Alternatively, values can emerge out of organizational traditions that are more
anonymous in origin. Tradition-based values are values deeply rooted in historical
practices, which provide stability as they are passed from generation to generation.
The content or interpreted meaning of values is based on either functional or elitist ideals.
Functional values express a normative mode of conduct that tells members what they
should pay attention to (e.g., customer service, innovation, quality). Elitist values focus
more on the perceived superiority of the organization in comparison to others. Elitist
values attempt to instill pride in membership, creating a “we’re number one” mentality.
Elitist values can create an aloofness that weakens members’ abilities to confront
changing realities.
CLASS 24.
Functions of Organizational Cultures
Less overt than the traditional managerial tools, organizational culture contributes as a
guide to consistent behavior by reinforcing capabilities and strengthening sources of
competitive advantage.
Organizational epitomizes the expressive character of organizations; it is communicated
less through objective realism and more through symbolism, feelings, and the meanings
behind language, behaviors, and physical settings.
Culture Supports (or Resists) Strategic Choices
Culture serves as a rudder to keep the firm’s strategy on course. Strategy is a rational
management process that leads to actions intended to match a firm’s product and service
offering to a specific market or type of customer. Culture is the expressive backup that
influences how well the strategy is implemented. Managers are often blindsided when
they try to introduce radical strategic changes that run contrary to cultural expectations.
Culture Promotes Expected Behaviors
Culture works best when strong. Culture works best when people forget why they are
doing certain things, but keep on doing them. But the strong culture that promotes
consistent behavior also makes it difficult to adapt when old ways no longer fit new
realities.
Subcultures Facilitate Organizational Diversity
Subcultures are localized subsystems of values and assumptions that give meaning to the
common interests of smaller clusters of people within the overall organization.
Subcultures have three possible impacts on the organization: They can (1) serve to
enhance the dominant culture; (2) promote an independence from it, as commonly occurs
among divisions of diversified firms; or (3) function as countercultures when they are at
odds with it.
Countercultures reject the values and assumptions of the host organization and develop
opposing beliefs, often based on elitist notions that may be promulgated by a charismatic
leader.
Growth Prompts Revolutionary Shifts in Culture
Culture change is typically more revolutionary and the result of a change in leadership.
Often there is a period of skepticism, resistance, and complaining about “losing our
values”. Cultural change thus needs to be led, guided, and nurtured, for like a large ship
at sea, it takes time to turn. Many times changes are guided through teachable points of
view, where the leader defines his or her values and beliefs about what it takes to succeed
in the organization’s chosen businesses and in business generally, and then projects those
ideas as a teacher throughout the organization.
Cultural changes may be necessary whenever organizations need to:
 Break away from a rigid bureaucratic culture and become more responsive to
change.
 Diminish the belief that power or policies gets things done and shift more toward
satisfying customers and the marketplace.
 Create an identity and set of values for a mediocre, culturally weak organization.
 Integrate an acquisition (with its own culture) into the ways of a new parent.
 Blend two cultures into one following a merger.
 Establish a unique, autonomous culture after a division is spun off or divested.
 Permit a division or major task unit to develop a subculture supportive of its task.
 Infuse stronger cultural elements into a weak culture firm through rites and
symbols.
Ethnic Diversity Sensitizes Organizational Culture
What you are learning about managing people’s organizational behavior gives you an
Americanized view of the world. The managerial approaches that work for us do not
necessarily stand up well in other countries.
How Do National Cultures Impact Global Business?
While business people may share some commonality of values across national cultures, a
country’s culture and business environment can cause value elements to differ
significantly across national borders.
Values, beliefs and behaviors have patterned differences. Ethnic differences give people
different predispositions toward work and business practices. Cultural differences
influence management styles.
The essence of country culture is national mental preprogramming, which is that part of
a country’s collective learning that is shared with other members of that nation, region, or
group, but not with members of other nations, regions or groups.
Values tend to be stable across nationally groups, where attitudes differ. Attitudes are
temporal beliefs based on evaluative interpretations of current conditions.
Four patterns of enduring values provide the framework for describing national cultures:
 Individualism versus Collectivism. In highly individualistic societies, the
individual is expected to look out for his or her own self-interest, and maybe that
of the immediate family. At the other extreme, collectivist societies assume that
close ties exist among people and the interests of the individual are subordinated to
the group, be it extended family, tribe, village, and/or employer. Individualistic
nations are loosely integrated (do your own thing), collectivist tightly integrated
(honor thy group heritage).
 Centralized versus Diffused Power. Centralized power societies permit unequal
intellectual or physical capabilities to grow into blatant inequalities in the
distribution of power and wealth. Diffused power societies play down individual
differences by sharing or decentralizing power.
 Strong versus Weak Uncertainty Avoidance. Societies accepting of uncertainty
use organized creativity to reduce the risk of uncertainty. Nations with a strong
need for uncertainty avoidance usually claim that absolute truth originates from a
dominant religion.
 Masculinity versus Femininity. Some nations make sharp distinctions between
roles based on sex. Nations with such clear sex role divisions are called
“masculine”. Masculine values permeate societies where the hero is the successful
achiever, where showing off and displaying wealth is accepted. Other societies are
more tolerant of a wider distribution of roles almost independent of sex and are
called “feminine”. Feminine values include respecting the underdog, putting
relationships before wealth, and tending to the quality of life and the environment.
CLASS 25.
HRM
Human Resource Management (HRM) is all about balancing the organization’s people
and processes to best achieve the goals and the strategies of the organization, as well as
the goals and the needs of employees. The main role an HR manager has to fulfill is
integrating business operations and strategies across a wide array of culture, products,
and ideas, while effectively delegating work among human resource specialists and line
management.
Apart from being concerned with local issues of employees, HR must also consider these
five basic functions and effects of workforce diversity, legal restriction, performance
management, training and professional development of the organization.
1. Recruitment
A great deal of attention and resources is required to attract, hire and retain an
experienced, committed and well-motivated workforce. This is perhaps one of the most
basic HR functions. There are several elements to this task such as developing a job
description, advertising the job postings, screening applicants, conducting interviews,
making offers and negotiating salaries and benefits. Companies that value their people
put a serious amount of investment in recruiting and staffing services. As the right
set of talented employees can not only raise the companies profile but also help it achieve
profitability and keep it running effectively and successfully.
2. Training and Development
The HR department is responsible for providing on-the-job as well as refresher training
for all employees (newly hired and existing) alike. This is the second most important
function and lack of training opportunities only increases frustration levels among
employees. So, training systems must be streamlined across all locations in order to make
communication and sharing of resources a convenient task. Measurement and monitoring
is another vital aspect of training in order to foster adoption of their new skills.
3. Professional Development
Effective HR departments allow and encourage the employees with opportunities for
growth, leadership training and education, which in turn contribute to the success of the
company. Sponsoring for career advancement seminars, training, corporate social
responsibilities and trade shows will make employees feel important and cared for by the
team and organization.
4. Benefits and Compensation
A company is more likely to be successful, if it adapts new ways of providing benefits to
employees. Some non-traditional benefits that can attract and retain new skilled
employees are:

Flexible working hours or workdays,

Extended vacation time,

Paternity leave or childcare

Medical/dental insurance,

Corporate gym membership discounts

Continuing education/skills development

Award & recognition programs
5. Ensuring Legal Compliance
Compliance with labor, tax and employment laws is a vital part of safeguarding the
organization’s continued existence. HR has to be aware of all the mandate laws and
policies regarding employment practices, working conditions, tax allowances, required
working hours, overtime, break times, minimum wage, and discrimination policies as
noncompliance can affect productivity and ultimately, profitability of the company
Human Resource Management: Scope
The scope of HRM is very wide:
• Personnel aspect-This is concerned with manpower planning, recruitment, selection,
placement, transfer, promotion, training and development, layoff and retrenchment,
Remuneration, incentives, productivity etc.
• Welfare aspect-It deals with working conditions and amenities such as canteens,
crèches, rest and lunch rooms, housing, transport, medical assistance, education, health
and safety, recreation facilities, etc.
• Industrial relations aspect-This covers union-management relations, joint consultation,
collective bargaining, grievance and disciplinary procedures, settlement of disputes, etc.
Importance of HRM
The main purpose of human resource management is to accomplish the organizational
goals. Therefore, the resources are mobilized to achieve such goals. Some importance
and objectives of human resource management are as follows:
1. Effective Utilization Of Resources
Human resource management ensures the effective utilization of resources. HRM teaches
how to utilize human and non-human resources so that the goals can be achieved.
Organization aiming to utilize their resources efficiently invites the HR department to
formulate required objectives and policies.
2. Organizational Structure
Organizational structure defines the working relationship between employees and
management. It defines and assigns the task for each employee working in the
organization. The task is to be performed within the given constraints. It also defines
positions, rights and duties, accountability and responsibility, and other working
relationships. The human resource management system provides required information to
timely and accurately. Hence, human resource management helps to maintain
organizational structure.
3. Development Of Human Resources
Human resource management provides favorable environment for employees so that
people working in organization can work creatively. This ultimately helps them to
develop their creative knowledge, ability and skill. To develop personality of employees,
human resource management organizes training and development campaigns which
provides an opportunity for employees to enhance their caliber to work.
4. Respect For Human Beings
Another importance of human resource management is to provide a respectful
environment for each employee. Human resource management provides with required
means and facilitates employee along with an appropriate respect because the dominating
tendency develops that will result organizational crisis. Hence, all of them should get
proper respect at work. Human resource management focuses on developing good
working relationships among workers and managers in organization. So, good human
resource management system helps for respecting the employees.
5. Goal Harmony
Human resource management bridges the gap between individual goal and organizational
goal-thereby resulting into a good harmony. If goal difference occurs, the employees will
not be willing to perform well. Hence, a proper match between individual goal and
organizational goal should be there in order to utilize organizational resources effectively
and efficiently.
6. Employee Satisfaction
Human resource management provides a series of facilities and opportunities to
employees for their career development. This leads to job satisfaction and commitment.
When the employees are provided with every kind of facilities and opportunities, they
will be satisfied with their work performance.
7. Employee Discipline And Moral
Human resource management tries to promote employee discipline and moral through
performance based incentives. It creates a healthy and friendly working environment
through appropriate work design and assignment of jobs.
8. Organizational Productivity
Human resource management focuses on achieving higher production and most effective
utilization of available resources. This leads to an enhancement in organizational goals
and objectives.
CLASS 26.
Manpower Planning, Recruitment, Selection, Induction
Recruitment refers to the process of screening, and selecting qualified people for a job at
an
organization or firm, or for a vacancy in a volunteer-based some components of the
recruitment
process, mid- and large-size organizations and companies often retain professional
recruiters or
outsource some of the process to recruitment agencies.
Recruiting refers to the process of attracting potential job applicants from the available
labor
force. Every organization must be able to attract a sufficient number of the job candidates
who
have the abilities and aptitudes needed to help the organization to achieve its objectives.
An
effective employee selection procedure is limited by the effectiveness of recruiting
process.
Outstanding job candidates cannot be selected if they are not included in the applicant
pool. The
recruitment process also interacts with other personnel functions, especially performance
evaluation compensation training and development and employee relations. Recruiting is
typically a human resource function.
In planning recruiting activities, an organization needs to know how many applicants
must be
recruited. Since some applicants may not be satisfactory an others may not accept the job
offers,
an organization must recruit more applicants than it expects to hire. Yield Ratios help
Organizations decide how many employees to recruit for each job opening. These ratios
express
the relationship between the numbers of people at one step of the recruitment process
relative to
the number of people who will move to the next step.
SOURCE OF RECRUITMENT
Basically organizations are available by the two main sources of recruitment which are:
• Internal Recruitment
• External Recruitment
Vacancies in upper level management can be filled either by hiring people from outside
the
organization or by promoting lower level mangers. Both strategies have advantages and
disadvantages. We will consider both internal and external recruitment sources in detail:
Internal Recruiting Sources: When job vacancies exist, the first place that an
organization
should look for placement is within itself. An organization’s present employees generally
feel
that they deserve opportunities to be promoted to higher level positions because of their
service
and commitment to organization. More over organizations have opportunities to examine
the
track records of its present employees and to estimate which of them would be
successful. Also
recruiting among present employees is less expensive than recruiting from outside the
organization. The major forms of the internal recruiting include:
• Promotion from within.
• Job posting.
• Contacts and referrals
Promotion from within: Promoting entry level employees to more responsible positions
is one
of the best ways to fill job vacancies and important reason why company should have a
human
resource planning system. An organization that has human resource planning system uses
succession plans and replacement charts to identify and prepare individuals for upper
level
positions. Skills inventories are useful in identifying individuals who have the potential
for
advancement, and individual’s desire to be promoted can be assessed in the performance
appraisal review. A promotion from within policy is intrinsic to career development and
human
resource planning. A promotion from within policy can stimulate great motivation among
employee, and this motivation is often accompanied by a general improvement in the
employee morle.
SELECTION
Selection is the process of choosing from a group of applicants those individuals best
suited for a particular position. Most managers recognize that employee selection is one
of their most
difficult, and most important, business decisions. This process involves making a
judgment –not about the applicant, but about the fit between the applicant and the job by
considering
knowledge, skills and abilities and other characteristics required to perform the job.
Selection
procedures are not carried out through standard pattern and steps in this. Process can vary
from organization to organization some steps performed and considered important by one
organization can be skipped by other organization The selection process typically begins
with the preliminary interview; next, candidates complete the application for
employment. They progress through a series of selection tests, the employment interview,
and reference and background checks. The successful applicant receives a company
physical examination and is employed if the results are satisfactory. Typically selection
process consists of the following steps but it is not necessary that all organization go
through all these steps as per requirement of the organization some steps can be skipped
while performing the selection process:
The basic idea is to collect maximum possible information about the candidates to
ascertain their suitability for employment. Below is a discussion of the various steps:
• Screening of Applications: Prospective employees have to fill up some sort of
application form. These forms have a variety of information about the applicants like
their bio-data, achievements, experience, etc.
• Selection Tests: Many organizations hold different kinds of selection tests to know
more
about the candidates or to reject the candidates who cannot be called for interview, etc.
Selection tests normally supplement the information provided in application forms. Such
forms may contain factual information about candidates. Selection tests may give
information about their aptitude, interest, personality etc, which cannot be known by
application forms.
Types of Test
1. Achievement Test It is also called performance test or trade test. Achievement is
concerned with what one has accomplished. When candidates claim that they have done
certain things and know these, the achievement test may be conducted to measure how
well the candidates know these. A candidate’s knowledge may be measured through his
answers to certain questions or his performance at a practical test. For example, a typing
test may measure the typing performance of a typist in terms of speed, accuracy and
efficiency. Performance test may be administered for selecting employees at operative
level as well as junior management level
Intelligence Test Intelligence test tries to measure the level of intelligence of a candidate.
This test generally includes verbal comprehension, word fluency, memory, inductive,
reasoning, number facility, speed of perception, spatial, visualization, etc. The scores on
the test are usually expressed numerically as Intelligence Quotient (IQ), which can be
calculated as follows:
IQ = Mental age x 100
Actual age
It means that the IQ is derived by converting actual age into mental age and multiplying it
by 100 in order to facilitate comparison. Higher is the figure; higher is the level of
intelligence. Intelligence test is designed on the basis of age groups. Thus, each age group
may have different intelligence tests. The basic idea behind intelligence test is that if the
organization is able to get people with higher intelligence, its training and learning
process will be easier because intelligent employees learn faster than dull employees.
3. Personality Test. The personality test is administered to predict performance success
for jobs that require dealing with people, or jobs that are essentially supervisory or
managerial in character. Dimensions of personality such as interpersonal competence,
dominance-submission, extroversion introversion, self-confidence, leadership ability,
patience, and ambition can be measured through personality tests. Personality test is
essentially a projective test because it projects the personality of the individual who may
be employed by the organization. Among the most widely used personality test is
Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) and its more improved version Thematic Evaluation
of Management Potential (TEMP).
4. Aptitude test is used for measuring human performance characteristics related to the
possible development of proficiency on specific jobs. These basic characteristics can be
thought of as aptitudes. As such, aptitude test measures the latent or potential
characteristics to do something provided proper environment and’ training are provided
to the individuals. This test is more valid when the applicants have no experience or very
little experience along the lines of the jobs. Specific tests have been developed for jobs
that require clerical, mechanical, spatial relationships, and manual dexterity, abilities and
skills. However, aptitude test does not measure motivation. Since on-the-job motivation
is found to be more important than aptitude for the job, aptitude test is supplemented by
interest tests.
5. Interest Test Interest test is designed to discover a person’s area of interest, and to
identify the kind of jobs that will satisfy him. It is assumed that a person who is interested
in a job can do much better than the person who is not interested. Interest test generally
measures interest in outdoor activities, mechanical, computational, scientific,
persuasive,artistic, literary, musical, clerical, social services, etc.
CLASS 27.
INDUCTION /ORIENTATION
We must all know that after a candidate joins the firm, he or she goes through the firm’s
orientation program. Orientation is the process of acquainting new employees with the
organization. Orientation topics range from such basic items as the location of the
company cafeteria to such concerns as various career paths within the firm.
Hence we can say that induction or orientation is the process through which a new
employee is introduced to the job and the organization. In the words of Armstrong,
induction is “the process
of receiving and welcoming an employee when he first joins a company and giving him
the basic information he needs to settle down quickly and start work.
Objective
Induction serves the following purposes:
Removes fears: A newcomer steps into an organization as a stranger. He is new to the
people, workplace and work environment. He is not very sure about what he is supposed
to do. Induction helps a new employee overcome such fears and perform better on the
job. It assists him in
knowing more about:
• The job, its content, policies, rules and regulations.
• The people with whom he is supposed to interact.
• The terms and conditions of employment.
Creates a good impression: Another purpose of induction is to make the newcomer feel
at
home and develop a sense of pride in the organization. Induction helps him to:
• Adjust and adapt to new demands of the job.
• Get along with people.
• Get off to a good start.
Through induction, a new recruit is able to see more clearly as to what he is supposed to
do, how good the colleagues are, how important is the job, etc. He can pose questions and
seek
clarifications on issues relating to his job. Induction is a positive step, in the sense; it
leaves a
good impression about the company and the people working there in the minds of new
recruits.They begin to take pride in their work and are more committed to their jobs.
Act as a valuable source of information: Induction serves as a valuable source of
information to new recruits. It classifies many things through employee manuals/
handbook. Informal discussions with colleagues may also clear the fog surrounding
certain issues. The basic purpose of induction is to communicate specific job
requirements to the employee, put him at ease and make him feel confident about his
abilities.
Steps in Induction Program
The HR department may initiate the following steps while organizing the induction
program:
• Welcome to the organization
• Explain about the company.
• Show the location, department where the new recruit will work. .
• Give the company’s manual to the new recruit.
• Provide details about various work groups and the extent of unionism within the
company.
CLASS 28.
Training and Development
Training is the process of planned programs and procedures undertaken for the
improvement of employee's performance in terms of his attitude, skills, knowledge and
behavior. These training and development programs can significantly improve the overall
performance of organization
Training is normally viewed as a short process. It is applied to technical staff, lower,
middle, senior level management. When applied to lower and middle management staff it
is called as training and for senior level it is called managerial development
program/executive development program/development program.
The principal objective of training and development division is to make sure the
availability of a skilled and willing workforce to an organization. In addition to that,
there are four other objectives: Individual, Organizational, Functional, and Societal.
Individual Objectives – help employees in achieving their personal goals, which in turn,
enhances the individual contribution to an organization.
Organizational Objectives – assist the organization with its primary objective by
bringing individual effectiveness.
Functional Objectives – maintain the department’s contribution at a level suitable to the
organization’s needs.
Societal Objectives – ensure that an organization is ethically and socially responsible to
the needs and challenges of the society.
Importance Of Training and Development
 Optimum Utilization of Human Resources – Training and Development
helps in optimizing the utilization of human resource that further helps the
employee to achieve the organizational goals as well as their individual goals.

Development of Human Resources – Training and Development helps to
provide an opportunity and broad structure for the development of human
resources’ technical and behavioral skills in an organization. It also helps the
employees in attaining personal growth.

Development of skills of employees – Training and Development helps in
increasing the job knowledge and skills of employees at each level. It helps to
expand the horizons of human intellect and an overall personality of the
employees.
Performance Appraisal
Meaning of Performance Appraisals
Performance Appraisals is the assessment of individual’s performance in a systematic
way. It is a developmental tool used for all round development of the employee and the
organization. The performance is measured against such factors as job knowledge,
quality and quantity of output, initiative, leadership abilities, supervision, dependability,
co-operation, judgment, versatility and health. Assessment should be confined to past as
well as potential performance also. The second definition is more focused on behaviors as
a part of assessment because behaviors do affect job results.
Use of Performance Appraisals
1. Promotions
2. Confirmations
3. Training and Development
4. Compensation reviews
5. Competency building
6. Improve communication
7. Evaluation of HR Programs
8. Feedback & Grievances
Performance Appraisal Process
1. Objectives definition of appraisal
2. Job expectations establishment
3. Design an appraisal program
4. Appraise the performance
5. Performance Interviews
6. Use data for appropriate purposes
7. Identify opportunities variables
8. Using social processes, physical processes, human and computer assistance
CLASS 29.
TECHNIQUES / METHODS OF PERFORMANCE APPRAISALS
Numerous methods have been devised to measure the quantity and quality of
performance appraisals. Each of the methods is effective for some purposes for some
organizations only. None should be dismissed or accepted as appropriate except as they
relate to the particular needs of the organization or an employee.
Broadly all methods of appraisals can be divided into two different categories.


Past Oriented Methods
Future Oriented Methods
Past Oriented Methods
1. Rating Scales: Rating scales consists of several numerical scales representing job
related performance criterions such as dependability, initiative, output, attendance,
attitude etc. Each scales ranges from excellent to poor. The total numerical scores are
computed and final conclusions are derived. Advantages – Adaptability, easy to use, low
cost, every type of job can be evaluated, large number of employees covered, no formal
training required. Disadvantages – Rater’s biases
2. Checklist: Under this method, checklist of statements of traits of employee in the
form of Yes or No based questions is prepared. Here the rater only does the reporting or
checking and HR department does the actual evaluation. Advantages – economy, ease of
administration, limited training required, standardization. Disadvantages – Raters biases,
use of improper weighs by HR, does not allow rater to give relative ratings
3. Forced Choice Method: The series of statements arranged in the blocks of two or
more are given and the rater indicates which statement is true or false. The rater is forced
to make a choice. HR department does actual assessment. Advantages – Absence of
personal biases because of forced choice. Disadvantages – Statements may be wrongly
framed.
4. Forced Distribution Method: here employees are clustered around a high point on a
rating scale. Rater is compelled to distribute the employees on all points on the scale. It is
assumed that the performance is conformed to normal distribution. Advantages –
Eliminates Disadvantages – Assumption of normal distribution, unrealistic, errors of
central tendency.
5. Critical Incidents Method: The approach is focused on certain critical behaviors of
employee that makes all the difference in the performance. Supervisors as and when they
occur record such incidents. Advantages – Evaluations are based on actual job behaviors,
ratings are supported by descriptions, feedback is easy, reduces recency biases, chances
of subordinate improvement are high. Disadvantages – Negative incidents can be
prioritized, forgetting incidents, overly close supervision; feedback may be too much and
may appear to be punishment.
6. Behaviorally Anchored Rating Scales: statements of effective and ineffective
behaviors determine the points. They are said to be behaviorally anchored. The rater is
supposed to say, which behavior describes the employee performance. Advantages –
helps overcome rating errors. Disadvantages – Suffers from distortions inherent in most
rating techniques.
7. Field Review Method: This is an appraisal done by someone outside employees’
own department usually from corporate or HR department. Advantages – Useful for
managerial level promotions, when comparable information is needed, Disadvantages –
Outsider is generally not familiar with employees work environment, Observation of
actual behaviors not possible.
8. Performance Tests & Observations: This is based on the test of knowledge or
skills. The tests may be written or an actual presentation of skills. Tests must be reliable
and validated to be useful. Advantage – Tests may be apt to measure potential more than
actual performance. Disadvantages – Tests may suffer if costs of test development or
administration are high.
9. Confidential Records: Mostly used by government departments, however its
application in industry is not ruled out. Here the report is given in the form of Annual
Confidentiality Report (ACR) and may record ratings with respect to following items;
attendance, self expression, team work, leadership, initiative, technical ability, reasoning
ability, originality and resourcefulness etc. The system is highly secretive and
confidential. Feedback to the assessee is given only in case of an adverse entry.
Disadvantage is that it is highly subjective and ratings can be manipulated because the
evaluations are linked to HR actions like promotions etc.
10. Essay Method: In this method the rater writes down the employee description in
detail within a number of broad categories like, overall impression of performance,
promote ability of employee, existing capabilities and qualifications of performing jobs,
strengths and weaknesses and training needs of the employee. Advantage – It is
extremely useful in filing information gaps about the employees that often occur in a
better-structured checklist. Disadvantages – It its highly dependent upon the writing skills
of rater and most of them are not good writers. They may get confused success depends
on the memory power of raters.
11. Cost Accounting Method: Here performance is evaluated from the monetary returns
yields to his or her organization. Cost to keep employee, and benefit the organization
derives is ascertained. Hence it is more dependent upon cost and benefit analysis.
12. Comparative Evaluation Method (Ranking & Paired Comparisons): These are
collection of different methods that compare performance with that of other co-workers.
The usual techniques used may be ranking methods and paired comparison method.

Ranking Methods: Superior ranks his worker based on merit, from best to worst.
However how best and why best are not elaborated in this method. It is easy to
administer and explanation.

Paired Comparison Methods: In this method each employee is rated with another
employee in the form of pairs. The number of comparisons may be calculated with
the help of a formula as under N x (N-1) / 2
Future Oriented Methods
1. Management By Objectives: It means management by objectives and the
performance is rated against the achievement of objectives stated by the management.
MBO process goes as under.

Establish goals and desired outcomes for each subordinate

Setting performance standards

Comparison of actual goals with goals attained by the employee

Establish new goals and new strategies for goals not achieved in previous year.
Advantage – It is more useful for managerial positions.
Disadvantages – Not applicable to all jobs, allocation of merit pay may result in setting
short-term goals rather than important and long-term goals etc.
2. Psychological Appraisals: These appraisals are more directed to assess employee’s
potential for future performance rather than the past one. It is done in the form of indepth interviews, psychological tests, and discussion with supervisors and review of other
evaluations. It is more focused on employees emotional, intellectual, and motivational
and other personal characteristics affecting his performance. This approach is slow and
costly and may be useful for bright young members who may have considerable
potential. However quality of these appraisals largely depends upon the skills of
psychologists who perform the evaluation.
3. Assessment Centers: This technique was first developed in USA and UK in 1943.
An assessment center is a central location where managers may come together to have
their participation in job related exercises evaluated by trained observers. It is more
focused on observation of behaviors across a series of select exercises or work samples.
Assesses are requested to participate in in-basket exercises, work groups, computer
simulations, role playing and other similar activities which require same attributes for
successful performance in actual job. The characteristics assessed in assessment center
can be assertiveness, persuasive ability, communicating ability, planning and
organizational ability, self confidence, resistance to stress, energy level, decision making,
sensitivity to feelings, administrative ability, creativity and mental alertness etc.
Disadvantages – Costs of employees travelling and lodging, psychologists, ratings
strongly influenced by assessee’s inter-personal skills. Solid performers may feel
suffocated in simulated situations. Those who are not selected for this also may get
affected.
Advantages – well-conducted assessment centre can achieve better forecasts of future
performance and progress than other methods of appraisals. Also reliability, content
validity and predictive ability are said to be high in assessment centres. The tests also
make sure that the wrong people are not hired or promoted. Finally it clearly defines the
criteria for selection and promotion.
4. 360-Degree Feedback: It is a technique which is systematic collection of
performance data on an individual group, derived from a number of stakeholders like
immediate supervisors, team members, customers, peers and self. In fact anyone who has
useful information on how an employee does a job may be one of the appraisers. This
technique is highly useful in terms of broader perspective, greater self-development and
multi-source feedback is useful. 360-degree appraisals are useful to measure interpersonal skills, customer satisfaction and team building skills. However on the negative
side, receiving feedback from multiple sources can be intimidating, threatening etc.
Multiple ratters may be less adept at providing balanced and objective feedback.
CLASS 30.
Change
Change is the process of moving from one condition to another. Changes in
organizations are stimulated by multiple external and internal forces, often interacting to
reinforce one another.
Individuals resist change due to: selective perception, lack of information, fear of the
unknown, habit, and resentment toward the initiator. Organizations resist change for
many of the same reasons individuals do. Additional sources of resistance are: power
maintenance, structural stability, functional sub-optimization, organizational culture, and
group norms.
How Do Managers Prepare for Planned Change?
Planned change is the process of preparing and taking actions to move from one
condition to a more desired one. The key questions to be answered when planning change
are:
1. What do we want to achieve? What are our goals?
2. Why? What are our performance gaps?
3. Who will be the change agents responsible for making the change (change agents
are individuals or groups responsible for changing behavior and systems)?
4. How do we plan to make it happen? What targets do we want to change and what
process will we apply to change them?
5. What organizational consequences do we anticipate from the change?
How Is the Planned Change Process Managed?
Three Phases of Planned Change
1. Unfreezing – raising awareness that current conditions are not satisfactory and
reducing resistance to desired change.
2. Moving – letting go of old ways of doing things and adopting new behaviors.
3. Refreezing – reinforcing the changes made to stabilize new ways of behaving
How Do Learning Organizations Promote Change?
A learning organization develops tools and methods to analyze, change, and reevaluate
their organizational systems so that employees respond more effectively and quicker to
the same work-related stimulus than they did in the past and to novel stimuli almost as
quickly. A learning organization is skilled at creating, acquiring, and transferring
knowledge and at modifying its behavior to reflect new knowledge and insight.
The Characteristics of Learning Organizations
 Systems Thinking – Members perceive their organization as a system of interrelated
processes, activities, functions, and interactions. Any action taken will have
repercussions on other variables in the system. It is important to see the entire picture
in the short and long run.
 Shared Vision – Belief and commitment toward a goal deeply desired by all.
Sublimation of competing departmental and personal interests for the achievement of
the shared vision.
 Personal Mastery – Continual learning and personal growth by all organizational
members. Individuals are willing to give up old ways of thinking and behaving to try
out possible better ones for themselves and the organization.
 Mental Process Models – Shared internal images of how individuals, the
organization, and the world work. Willingness to reflect on the reasoning underlying
our actions and to change these assumptions when necessary to create a more
appropriate process for doing things.
 Team Learning – Organization members openly communicate across departmental
and hierarchical boundaries to help all members solve problems and learn from each
other. Decreasing the need for personal wins in order to increase the search for the
truth for the good of the entire team.
Single loop learning occurs when a manager shifts responsibility from employees to
himself or herself by asking the simple unidirectional questions that produce simple
impersonal responses.
Double loop learning shifts accountability for actions and learning to employees by
having a manager ask complex questions about the employee’s motivation for solving a
problem.
CLASS 31.
The term ‘organisational change’ implies the creation of imbalances in the existing
pattern of situation. When an organization operates and functions for a long time, an
adjustment between its technical, human and structural set-up is established. It tends to
approximate an equilibrium in relation to its environment. In other words, organization
members evolve a tentative set of relations with the environment. They have an
adjustment with their job, working conditions, friends and colleagues etc. Change
requires individuals to make new adjustments. Hence the fear of adjustment gives rise to
the problem of change and resistance to change. Individual comes in to danger. On the
other hand, groups resist change where their existence is in danger or a total change in
overall work environment is contemplated. Management of change may be defined as a
conscious and concerted initiative by those who are in-charge of the destiny of the
business undertaking or firm to keep a constant and intelligent watch over the behaviour
of uncontrollable forces, to assess their impact and influence of the controllable forces,
and to evolve appropriate strategies and action programmes to maintain a dynamic
equilibrium between the controllable and uncontrollable forces. The controllable forces
are those forces about which sufficient information is available. Such forces can be
managed easily. Uncontrollable forces are those about which not much is known. These
forces exert a powerful influence on thebehaviour of controllable forces and limit the
scope of managerial action.
FORCES FOR CHANGE
Organisations encounter many different forces for change. These forces come
from external sources outside the organisation and from internal sources. Awareness of
these forces can help managers determine when they should consider implementing an
organisational change. The external and internal forces for change are as follows:
4
(a) External Forces
External forces for change originate outside the organisation. Because these
forces have global effects, they may cause an organisation to question the essence of
what business it is in and the process by which products and services are produced. There
are four key external forces for change: demographic characteristics, technological
advances, market changes, and social and political pressures.
(i) Demographic Characteristics
Organisations need to effectively manage diversity if they are to receive
maximum contribution and commitment from employees.
(ii) Technological Advancements
Both manufacturing and service organisations are increasingly using technology
as a means to improve productivity and market competitiveness. Manufacturing
companies, for instance, have automated their operations with robotics, computerized
numerical control (CNC) which is used for metal cutting operations, and computer-aided
design (CAD). CAD is a computerized process of drafting and designing engineering
drawings of products. Companies have just begun to work on computer-integrated
manufacturing (CIM). This highly technical process attempts to integrate product design
with product planning, control, and operations. Office automation consists of a host of
computerized technologies that are used to obtain, store, analyse, retrieve, and
communicate information.
(iii) Market Changes
The emergence of a global economy is forcing Indian companies to change the
way they do business. Companies are having to forge new partnerships with their
suppliers in order to deliver higher quality products at lower prices.
(iv) Social and Political Pressures
These forces are created by social and political events. Personal values affect
employees’ needs, priorities, and motivation; managers thus may need to adjust their
managerial style or approach to fit changing employee values. Political events can create
substantial change. For example, the collapse of both the Berlin Wall and communism in
Russia created many new business opportunities. Although it is difficult for organisations
to predict changes in political forces, many organisations hire lobbyists and consultants to
help them detect and respond to social and political changes.
(b) Internal Forces
Internal forces for change come from inside the organisation. These forces may be
subtle such as low morale, or can manifest in outward signs such as low productivity and
conflict. Internal forces for change come from both human resource problems and
managerial behaviour/decisions.
(i) Human Resource Problems/Prospects
These problems stem from employee perceptions about how they are treated at
work and the match between individual and organisation needs and desires.
Dissatisfaction is a symptom of an underlying employee problem that should be
addressed. Unusual or high levels of absenteeism and turnover also represent forces for
change. Organisations might respond to these problems by using the various approaches
to job design by implementing realistic job previews, by reducing employees role
conflict, overload, and ambiguity, and by removing the different stresses. Prospects for
positive change stem from employee participation and suggestions.
(ii) Managerial Behaviour/Decisions
Excessive interpersonal conflict between managers and their subordinates is a
sign that change is needed. Both the manager and the employee may need interpersonal
skills training, or the two may simply need to be separated: for example, one of the
parties might be transferred to a new department. Inappropriate leadership behaviours,
6
such as inadequate direction or support, may result in human resource problems requiring
change. Leadership training is one potential solution for this problem.
CLASS 32.
LEVELS OF CHANGE
Change can be at individual, group and organisational levels:
(a) Individual Level Change
At the individual level change is reflected in such developments as changes in a
job assignment, physical move to a different location, or the change in maturity of a
person which occurs overtime. It is said that changes at the individual level will seldom
have significant implications for the total organisation. This is not true because a
significance change at the individual level will have its repercussions on the group which,
in turn, might influence the wider organisation. A manager who desires to implement a
major change at the individual level, transferring an employee for instance, must
understand that the change will have repercussions beyond the individual.
(b) Group Level Changes
Most organisational changes have their major effects at the group level. This is
because most activities in organisations are organised on group basis. The groups could
be departments, or informal work groups. Changes at the group level can affect work
flows, job design, social organisation, influence and status systems, and communication
patterns.
Managers must consider group factors when implementing change. Informal
groups can pose a major barrier to change because of the inherent strengths they contain.
Formal groups can resist change, as exemplified by the resistance demonstrated by
unions to the changes proposed by management. Because of the powerful influence that
groups can have on individuals, effective implementation of change at the group level can
frequently overcome resistance at the individual level.
(c) Organization Level Changes
Change at this level involves major programmes that affect both individuals and
groups. Decisions regarding these changes are generally made by senior management and
are seldom implemented by only a single manager. Frequently they occur over long
periods of time and require considerable planning for implementation. Example of these
changes would be reorganisation of the organisation structure and responsibilities,
revamping of employee remuneration system, or major shifts in an organisation’s
objectives. Change at the organisational level is generally referred to as organization
development.
CLASS 33.
TYPES OF CHANGE
There are various areas within the organisational domain where changes can be
brought about for operational enhancement of the organisation as well as desirable
behaviour of members. The various types of changes that can have considerable impact
on the organisational culture are:
a) Strategic Change
This is a change in the very mission of the organisation. A single mission may
have to be changed to multiple missions. For example, when British Airways acquired a
major part of U.S. Air, the culture of the entire organization had to be modified to
accommodate various aspects of American organisational culture into the British
organisational culture.
b) Structural Change
Decentralized operations and participative management style have seen more
recent trends in the organisational structure. Since these structural changes shift the
authority and responsibility to generally lower level management, it has a major impact
on an organisation’s social climate and members have to be prepared to develop a team
spirit as well as acquire skills to make on-the-spot decisions at points of operations.
c) Process-oriented Change
These changes relate to technological developments, information processing,
automation and use of robotics in the manufacturing operations. This means replacing or
retraining personnel, heavy capital equipment investment and operational changes. This
would affect the organisational culture and hence changes in the behaviour patterns of
members.
d) People-oriented Change
Even though, any organisational change affects people in some form, it is
important that the behaviour and attitudes of the members be predictable and in
accordance with the expectations of the organization and be consistent with the mission
and policies of the enterprise. These changes are directed towards performance
improvement, group cohesion, dedication and loyalty to the organization as well as
developing a sense of self-actualisation among the members. These can be developed by
closer interaction with employees and by special behavioural training and modification
sessions.
STEPS IN MANAGED CHANGE
The first step in the change process is to identify the need for change and the area
of change as to whether it is strategic change, process-oriented change or
employeeoriented
change. This need for change can be identified either through internal factors or
through external forces that may be in place. Once this need is identified, the following
steps can be taken to implement such change:
1. Develop new goals and objectives
The managers must identify as to what new outcomes they wish to achieve. This
may be a modification of previous goals due to changed internal and external
environmental or it may be a new set of goals and objectives.
2. Select an agent for change
The management must decide as to who will initiate and oversee this change. A
manager may be assigned this duty or even outside specialists and consultants can be
brought in to suggest the various methods to bring in the change and monitor the change
process.
3. Diagnose the problem
It is important to gather all pertinent data regarding the area or the problem where
the change is needed. This data should be critically analysed to pinpoint the key issues.
Then the solutions can be focused on those key issues.
4. Select methodology
Because of natural resistance to change, it is very important to chart out a
methodology for change which would be correct and acceptable to all. Member’s
emotions must be taken into consideration when devising such methodology.
5. Develop a plan
This step involves putting together a plan as to what is to be done. For example, if
the company wants to develop and implement a flexitime policy, it must decide as to
what type of workers will be affected by it or whether flexitime should be given to all
members or only to some designated workers.
6. Strategy for implementation of the plan
In this stage, the management must decide on the “when”, “where” and “how” of
the plan. This includes the right timing of putting the plan to work, how the plan will be
communicated to workers in order to have the least resistance and how the
implementation will be monitored.
7. Implementation of the plan
Once the right timing and right channels of communications have been
established, the plan is put into action. It may be in the form of simple announcement or
it may require briefing sessions or in-house seminars so as to gain acceptance of all the
members and specially those who are going to be directly affected by the change.
8. Receive and evaluate feedback
Evaluation consists of comparing actual results to the set goals. Feedback will
confirm if these gaols are being met so that if there is any deviation between the goals
and the actual performance outcomes, then corrective measures can be taken.
RESISTANCE TO CHANGE
Resistance to change is understood to be a natural phenomenon. But not all
change is resisted. In fact, if we look at any organisation closely we would probably find
that more changes are accepted than resisted. Accepting the fact that people have a
natural instinct to adapt to their environment is the first step towards effective
management of change. It has the advantage of placing people in a more positive light,
but also suggests that resistance to change is unnatural behaviour. If managers accept this
principle, then they can proceed to analyse the situation to find the (unnatural) cause of
resistance. Failure to understand this characteristic of resistance can cause many
managers to attempt to run through changes rather than try to understand the sources of
the resistance.
Sources of resistance to change may be rational or emotional. Rational resistance
occurs when people do not have the proper knowledge or information to evaluate the
change. Providing information (in the form of data, facts, or other types of concrete
information) reduces the resistance. Emotional resistance involves the psychological
problems of fear, anxiety, suspicion, insecurity, and the like. These feelings are evoked
because of people’s perception of how the change will affect them.
CLASS 34.
INTERNATIONAL OB
As organizations become more international and embrace both different
nationalities and cultures, the study of organizational behavior has expanded
to involve global settings. All the aspects of change mentioned becomes
amplified and even more critical as organizations move toward becoming
more multicultural, multinational and even having offices located in different
countries or regional of the world. The study of International Organizational
Behavior requires the understanding of various regional contexts (American,
Canadian, Latin-American, European, Asian and African) and their numerous
local contexts with their indigenous cultures. Yet, researchers also need to
understand the cross-cultural and virtual interactions especially in
multinational companies (MNCs) and transnational organizations. Although
all members in organizations are human beings, individuals working with
different cultures and nationalities experience diverse difficulties that cannot
be assumed as similar to those individuals working in a homogenous setting.
Also, as organizations become more team oriented to cope with the need to be
flexible and responsive to the volatile business environment, team research
(especially cross- cultural and virtual) is becoming more critical in
international OB. Finally, the perception and of organizational change and the
rates of change in different regions and nations are beginning to be included
as part of the field of international OB. In this book we offer some concrete
examples that highlight the international flavor of Organizational Behavior
across all three levels: individual, team and organizational.
Scientific Management
Modern OB was much influenced by Frederick Winslow Taylor in the late
1890s. His 1911 book The Principles of Scientific Management 1 would have
been on the office shelves of Henry Ford's managers. Taylor was an engineer
who wanted to find a way of improving employee performance in a steel
factory where he worked. He believed that he could find an ideal set of
management principles that would improve the satisfaction and performance
of all employees.
The years Taylor spent analyzing and observing worker behavior resulted in a
procedure for organizational control called scientific management . Taylor
argued that each task should be simplified so that every employee would
repeat the same minimum task as efficiently as possible. The best worker at a
given task should be studied in terms of time taken and tools and techniques
used, and this performance would be the benchmark against which other
workers would be measured. Management would make all the planning,
pacing, and maintenance decisions, and would pay employees based on their
individual productivity.
He felt that his scientific management was the one best way of managing all
employees; it would guarantee the optimal use of workers in virtually any
working situation. Although it was later found that no single management
style is highly effective in all situations, Taylor's scientific management made
some important contributions to our understanding of OB. These include
identifying some of the sources of motivation of workers, developing goalsetting
programs, bringing in incentive pay systems, laying the groundwork
for modern employee selection techniques, and providing properly designed
tools.
Taylor was criticized as having too mechanistic an approach to management,
and for assuming that employees are basically lazy and need to be watched
continuously. A contemporary critic of Taylor, citing one of Taylor's success
stories, asked if it was fair for employees to increase their output by 363
percent for a mere 61 percent increase in wages. Opposition to Taylor was a
major cause of the rapid growth of unionism.
The interdisciplinary nature of OB surfaced early. In 1915, the U.S.
physiologist Walter Cannon discovered the stress response, which he
described as a physiological response to environmental stimuli. A generation
later, organizational behaviorists would use Cannon's finding to identify the
relationship between health and employee behavior.
The Hawthorne Studies
During the 1920s, a Western Electric Co. telephone assembly plant in
Hawthorne, Illinois, following Taylor's theory, conducted routine scientific
management research on variables such as the effect of workplace lighting on
productivity2. The illumination in one assembly room was unchanged; in
another room, it was varied. Astonishingly, every time the lighting in either
room was measured, productivity increased, at least initially. The puzzled
management hired business school professor Elton Mayo3 to investigate.
Again, Mayo soon concluded that no matter what changes were made, the
employees' productivity rose. This finding was the start for a series of four
massive studies by Mayo over the next dozen years. One study on assemblers
whose work environment was not being changed showed that they were all
restricting their output to some unwritten standard. Mayo gradually switched
his attention from the physical work environment to the attitudes, morale, and
social relations of the employees, that is, to the human relations of the
workplace. To investigate the nature of these human relations, detailed 90minute interviews were conducted with over 20 000 employees. These
interviews disclosed the importance of the informal social structure:
employees were forming groups that established their own norms of behavior
(including productivity) and pressured members to produce neither more nor
less than these norms. These findings came to be known as the Hawthorne
effect . The main Hawthorne effect is the remarkably energizing effect of the
simple act of showing interest or paying attention. Ever since, researchers
have been careful to consider the Hawthorne effect as a possible explanation
of research participants' behavior. (The more formal name for this effect is
demand characteristics , meaning that the researcher can, even without
meaning to, "demand" that the research participant behave in a certain way.)
The other Hawthorne effect has to do with how the social influence of an
informal group can determine employee behavior, including productivity.
Mayo's finding that working conditions, satisfaction, and relationships with
other workers all influence employee behavior gave rise to the human
relations approach to the management of people, which held that there is no
one best way of managing employees. The first motivation theories were
developed toward the end of the 1930s. These theories are based on the
assumption that behavior is largely determined by immediate needs . Indeed,
they show how the various physical, psychological, and social needs of a
21
person will predict behavior. The 1950s saw the development of motivational
theory based on the work of Frederick Herzberg4, which drew attention to the
difference between needs that are satisfied by the external environment
(extrinsic needs) and those that are satisfied by the inner upper-level needs
(intrinsic needs).
Leadership Research
During the early 1940s, the world stage was highly dominated by a small
number of political and ideological leaders such as Churchill, Hitler, Stalin,
and Mussolini. Canadians looked to William Lyon Mackenzie King, who was
then serving his third term as prime minister. Not surprisingly, this is a time
when researchers began to look at the issue of leadership. The main early
contributors were Ronald Lippitt and Ralph White5, who examined
democratic and autocratic styles of leadership. Later, J.R.P. French and B.
Raven6 studied the concepts of leadership and power. The two main names in
leadership research are R.M. Stogdill7, who analyzed leadership behavior and
suggested that an individual's personality characteristics determined whether
he or she was a follower or a leader, and Fred Fiedler8, who showed that
different types of leaders are needed for different situations.
During the 1950s and 1960s, industrial psychologists began to examine the
impact of satisfaction on the design of work and on employee behavior.
Studies of group dynamics and interactions were also conducted. J.S. Adams's
equity theory9 and Victor Vroom's expectancy theory10 dominated the work
motivation research during this period. More details are presented in Chapter
Without research, we'd have to rely on guesswork for our answers. What
makes OB a science is its use of scientific research procedures, which are
outlined in this section. OB researchers use both quantitative and qualitative
designs in their research.