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Globalisation and the English Secondary School Curriculum Jane Evans Institute of Education, University of London This paper extends and adapts and an article entitled Globalisation, Qualifications and Livelihoods: an introduction to the literature for the readers of Assessment in Education, by Jane Evans previously published in the Journal of Assessment in Education Volume 7, issue 3, November 2000. It also draws upon the author’s contribution to a consultation paper presented to DfID in July 2000 entitled Globalisation and Educational Development: Mapping the Issues (Authors Keith M Lewin, Angela W Little and Jane Evans) Introduction From a vast and continuously expanding literature and commentary about globalisation, four main concepts can be detected. I will first discuss each of these, with brief examples. Four Concepts of Globalisation 1. Globalisation Enthusiasts Enthusiastic commentators who prescribe and recommend the benefits of globalisation For example, Kenichi Ohmae, a Japanese business and management consultant who alerts corporations to the ways in which increased globalisation of the economy should change the ways in which business is conducted locally. His 1990 book The Borderless World: power and strategy in the global marketplace is written in a very readable style and has been influential in the business world. For Kenichi Ohmae, free, uninterrupted trade and innovation of goods, processes and services is the answer to many of the world's social, economic and political problems. Unsuccessful economies are hampered by a lack of choice and consumer freedom. Efficient use of human capital is the route out of poverty for developing countries. Ohmae predicts the development of an interlinked world economy, and analogises this with a duty-free shop: Duty -free shops are the precursor to what life will be like in a genuinely borderless environment. The same goods cost the same amount of money no matter what country you are in. In none are the prices higher because of duties or taxes. Influential magazines like The Economist promote similarly, extremely enthusiastic views of globalisation. Two Economist columnists have just produced a book A Future Perfect, updating this positive view of globalisation. In the 10 years since Ohmae wrote his book, it has become plain that not everyone gains from economic globalisation. John Micklethwait and Adrian Wooldridge acknowledge this, whilst 1 still sanguinely claiming that “globalisation is a savage process, but also a beneficial one in which the winners far outnumber the losers”. (p.ix) 2. Globalisation Sceptics React sceptically about the causes, effects, scope or benefits of globalisation. There are two types of sceptics. Globalisation sceptics may either be sceptical about whether globalisation is happening at all, or they may be sceptical about the benefits of globalisation. For some commentators, globalisation is entirely negative. Some even going as far as to resist selected manifestations with violence, as in Seattle and Prague recently. This latter form of scepticism often conflates globalisation with capitalism, and tends to project the well-known flaws and failings of capitalism onto globalisation. Paul Hirst and Grahame Thompson in their 1996 book Globalization in Question provide an example of the first type of scepticism. As suggested by the title, their thesis questions the extent of globalisation in the world economy. They argue that there is nothing new about the current internationalisation of trade and that this has been going on for centuries. They also question the benefits of globalisation, (in so far as they acknowledge its existence) for the poorer countries of the world. They believe that those countries that benefit from globalisation will not seek to spread the benefits, but will protect their own position and thus act to increase inequity in the world. Hans-Peter Martin and Harald Schumann are writers who see globalisation as a manifestation of free-market capitalism. In their book The Global Trap they describe a world of increasing inequality. They favour increased economic nationalism combined with further European integration. John Gray is another writer who sees globalisation as little more than American freemarket capitalism exported to ill effect. In his book False Dawn: Delusions Of Global Capitalism he predicts the results will be an increase in social exclusion, political corruption and ultimately political instability. 3. Globalisation Realists These writers observe a de facto increase in the interconnectedness of the global economy. They describe the results and effects for different groups with little political bias or rhetoric. Peter Dicken is one such writer. His textbook Global Shift: Transforming the Global Economy has had several editions. It surveys the effects of economic globalisation on patterns of trade, industrialisation and employment. The uneven effects of globalisation are well examined. He uses case studies from four different economic sectors and examines changes in ways of working and the effects of globalisation on employment. There are both advantages and disadvantages for workers in the developing world. On the one hand there is exposure to expertise, knowledge and new technologies through contact with Transnational corporations, and investment is 2 increased, but on the other hand, international firms can impose unfavourable terms on weak bidders desperate for employment and investment. 4. Cosmopolitans Believe that increased global interconnectedness and interdependence is an opportunity for greater harmony and co-operation in the world, especially through the use or reform of International Institutions like the UN. Institutions can be made more accountable and democratic, human rights extended and inequities eradicated. David Held's 1995 book Democracy and the Global Order: From Modern State to Cosmopolitan Governance posited an almost utopian view of the possibilities of greater political interconnection and the creation of a cosmopolitan democratic order. Perhaps the recent ratification of the 1998 Human Rights Act by the UK supports some of this optimism, but only in European countries and then, not without frequent contention. Worldwide, there continues to be considerable political intransigence over which the UN seemingly has little influence. Conceptualising Globalisation in the school curriculum Globalisation is a present reality. It increasingly affects social, political, economic and cultural life. As such, it is starting to be reflected in the school curriculum and different bodies have an interest in presenting different concepts of globalisation to pupils. In the second half of this presentation I will show how each of the five concepts of globalisation is presented in a variety of curriculum materials, asking how these materials serve the learners. 1. Global Enthusiasts Wooldridge and Micklethwait observe that “the devil has the best tunes” when it comes to globalisation. For them this means that the benefits of globalisation, as they see them, are less often discussed than the disadvantages. This imbalance is also found in educational materials about globalisation. There is much on the anticapitalist, sceptical side, but despite thorough searching, this writer has found little on the enthusiast side. Students might of course visit web sites belonging to The Economist or the IMF, but these are not the same as specially constructed educational materials. Transnationals appear to be very conscious of their negative image with globalisation sceptics, and the wider public. Some, therefore, are engaging with educational activities in a way that is probably mainly directed at damage limitation. The Coca-Cola Company for example, has an educational foundation, which is concerned with promoting global understanding and global citizenship. This makes use of the utopian position and hopeful outlook of cosmopolitans, rather than demonstrating Coca-Cola’s enthusiasm for the economic benefits of globalisation. School exchanges are organised around the world, educational projects in poor countries are funded, and, in the States, they fund programmes for low achievers and pupils with behavioural difficulties. The UK based Hanson group uses its quarrying arm to fund and promote environmental awareness and activities at school level. 3 Some major oil companies (for example, Conoco) similarly promote environmental educational materials. 2.Globalisation Sceptics Globalisation sceptics prevail in non-formal resources prepared for use in schools and in policy inputs to curriculum development processes. They are in the second category of sceptic- those that equate globalisation with capitalism and therefore a bad thing. There is additionally a tendency to see globalisation as culturally homogenising to the particular detriment of non-western cultures. An example of a sceptical point of view is contained in materials prepared by the Development Education Association and its associated Development Education Councils. One DEC provides an extensive web site resource for teachers on the subject of globalisation using the topic of World Cup football. The concept of globalisation portrayed by this wealth of study material is that it is inherently unfair and exclusively negative in its effects on developing countries. The benefits of globalisation are portrayed as being enjoyed uniquely by the extremely rich, especially Transnational Corporations, which shamelessly exploit the poor who work in their factories and also have Governments and International Organisations in their thrall. A diagram provided for pupils describes a process that "provides a context for globalisation and who controls it" (emphasis added). Heading this process diagram is the "Fantasy world of finance". Amongst the key concepts taught is that with globalisation "poly-culture becomes the mono-culture, consumerism rules, local identity [is] reduced". One of the educational outcomes is stated as "Hope and belief that something can be done to control/improve globalisation process with particular reference to TNCs" A mass of detailed information about named transnationals, including the salaries of their chief executives, is provided. Training shoe manufacturers and broadcasting companies are “named and shamed” in detail in this resource. 3. Globalisation Realists This position is reflected in the materials on globalisation prepared as part of the new National Curriculum. The main subject in which ideas about globalisation are taught is Geography, but it is developed in other subject areas as well. (For example, citizenship and MFL) Globalisation is seen to be about increased interdependence in the world, and one of the aims of the Geography curriculum is to help pupils "realise how nations rely on each other". The National curriculum also offers a module for year 7 on the subject of the World Cup. This contrasts with the Development Education Council module in that it encourages the pupils to find out a great deal for themselves. Far less material is presented ready-made. The objectives, activities and outcomes suggested, encourage the children to investigate for themselves the economic relationships of football, both locally and in the world, by mapping the events of the World Cup and comparing success in football with economic factors such as GDP. For older pupils there is a study of the global fashion industry, an area which is often presented as widely exploitative, although textile production forms an important component of the economy in many countries. The National Curriculum does not, as some educational 4 resources do, focus on particular high street names and their employment practices. Instead pupils are asked to study a wide range of concepts associated with economic globalisation and development and then produce a “synthesising piece of formal objective writing”, which “ explains what globalisation is and what its effects are [and] considers the extent to which effects are good or bad” Globalisation is covered in other subjects of the National Curriculum as well as geography. Citizenship will become a forum for greater understanding of global interdependence. The requirements for knowledge and understanding of this subject at Key stage 3 state that “pupils should be taught about...the world as a global community and the political, economic, environmental and social implications of this, and the role of the European Union, the Commonwealth and the United Nations.” At key stage 4 (when Citizenship will still be a compulsory subject, unlike Geography) pupils should cover “the wider issues and challenges of global interdependence and responsibility, including sustainable development and Local Agenda 21” Cosmopolitans. This view is presented in learning and campaigning materials produced by Oxfam who have produced a Curriculum for Global Citizenship. In this curriculum the idea of a global citizen would underpin all learning. It is not primarily concerned with learning about globalisation and interdependence, although this is included as knowledge and understanding that pupils need to acquire. It is also concerned with developing values and attitudes to enable participation, and active citizenship as well as developing skills of critical thinking, effective argument, co-operation and conflict resolution and the ability to challenge injustice and inequality. Knowledge, understanding and values are described across all the Key Stages and gradually increase in complexity, each building on the previous level. Sustainable development is also an important concept and Agenda 21 is used. The concept of a “global footprint”- the impact of an individual upon resources and consumption patterns, is used as an underlying principle of good global citizenship. This means that the UK pupil has quite a lot of learning to do to become a good global citizen. Children in the South, however, “may already be good Global Citizens both through the contribution they make to their local communities, and through making only a minute ecological footprint, even though they may not have an understanding of how the wider world works”. A particular view of development is implicit in this material, which places the children in the rich countries in the world in the position of helping people in the South. This week Oxfam have opened a new web site for teachers on the global citizenship theme. It encourages teachers to share good practice, and whilst it is still under construction some activities are present which demonstrate ideas about development and globalisation in a particular way. One is an activity on fashion and trade, for year 9 pupils. This contrasts with the global fashion scheme of work in the National Curriculum in its simplicity and the extremely straightforward way in which ideas about globalisation and development are presented. Although Oxfam’s proposal for a Global Citizenship curriculum emphasises building up self esteem, this particular scheme of work contains some discussion ideas aimed at shaming and embarrassing year 9 pupils about their clothes buying activities. Nineteen lesson ideas are given. Lessons 7 to 12 are set aside for pupils’ own detailed research on India. Lessons 17, 5 18 and 19 deal with fair trade and the plan for these leads with the statement “There is a choice: fair trade or not fair trade. Develop debate supported by written material for and against fair trade” (emphasis added). These lesson plans are really an extension on development education, presenting a particular view of development with some straightforward ideas about globalisation and trade added on. Conclusion This paper examines a very small selection of the materials that are rapidly becoming available to teachers wishing to include work about globalisation in the secondary school curriculum. It can be seen nonetheless that there are different ways of conceptualising globalisation and that this has an effect on the quality of the materials produced and on the resulting teaching and learning. Materials from the National Curriculum encourage pupils to think critically and argue objectively. They present pupils with some of the complexities about globalisation and its effects and allow a heuristic approach to learning. There are other approaches, however. First, those that present some very simple ideas and statements about globalisation and trade, but do so in such a way that a young person may find the conceptualisation difficult to argue with. Which 14-year-old girl is going to mount an argument against fair trade, although invited to by Oxfam’s scheme of work? A second approach provides such a bulk and detail of material that it is difficult to see what learning pupils will do for themselves. The detail may also be concealing the fact that only one conceptualisation of globalisation is being dealt with. A third approach is for transnational corporations to use a presence in education as a marketing exercise. Rather than expressing the obvious global enthusiasts’ position, they fund environmental education projects or arrange global education exchange visits for disadvantaged children. Although globalisation is a new topic in the school curriculum, dealing with partial resource materials is not a new experience for teachers. It is to be hoped that they will use their experience to select from and use the range of resources available to enable pupils to develop skills of critical thinking and discrimination to discover for themselves about globalisation. References DEC Birmingham (Current web sites) Globalisation and the World Cup ’98 http://www.tidec.org/Globalisation/globapproaches/html DfEE (1999) The National Curriculum: Handbook for Secondary Teachers in England, Key Stages 3 and 4. The Stationery Office, London and www.nc.uk.net Dicken, P. (1998) Global Shift: Transforming the World Economy Paul Chapman London Gray, J. (1998) False Dawn: The Delusions of Global Capitalism London, Granta Held, D. (1995) Democracy and the Global Order: From the Modern State to Cosmopolitan Governance Polity, Cambridge 6 Hirst,P & Grahame Thompson (1996) Globalization in Question Polity, Cambridge Martin, H-P and Harald Schumann, (1997) The Global Trap: Globalization and the Assault on Democracy and Prosperity London and New York, Zed Micklethwait, J and Adrian Wooldridge (2000) A Future perfect: the Challenge and Hidden Promise of Globalisation, William Heinemann, London Ohmae, K (1990) The Borderless World: Power and Strategy in the Global Marketplace London, Harpercollins Oxfam (1997) A curriculum for Global Citizenship: Oxfam’s development Education Programme. Oxford And http://www.globalcitizenhip.org.uk/global/globalcitizenship/staffroom/ 7