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MINORITIES AND WORLD WAR II
AFRICAN AMERICANS
For African Americans, World War II was a kind of turning point. They continued to be placed in all black military
units. They also were sent to segregated training camps in the South. There, some African Americans from the
North experienced civilian segregation for the first time. However, civil rights organizations put pressure on the
military to allow African American units into combat. When these soldiers and airmen finally got their chance,
they fought bravely and won many medals.
In 1941, Congress authorized the formation of an all-black combat unit. The 99th Fighter Squadron started their
training at the Tuskegee Institute in Alabama. They became known as the Tuskegee Airmen. The crew was called
the “Red Tails” because of the distinctive red tail section of its aircraft. Among the brave men who fought in Italy
were pilots of the all-black 99th Pursuit Squadron. The 99th, along with three other squadrons, were then sent to
Europe to assist in escorting in bombing raids. In Sicily, the squadron registered its first victory against an enemy
aircraft and went on to more impressive strategic strikes against the German forces throughout Italy. The
Tuskegee Airmen won two Distinguished Unit Citations (the military’s highest commendation) for their
outstanding aerial combat against the German Luftwaffe. The Tuskegee Airmen received numerous medals,
displayed great valor, and became one of the most successful and highly decorated combat troops during the
war. In addition to the Presidential Unit Citation, the highly decorated squadron earned over 100 Distinguished
Flying Crosses, a Legion of Merit and other commendations. Another African American unit to distinguish itself
was the famous 92nd Infantry Division, nicknamed the Buffalos. In just six months of fighting in Europe, the
Buffalos won 7 Legion of Merit awards, 65 Silver Stars, and 162 Bronze Stars for courage under fire. After the
end of World War II, the troops returned home to face racism again. Still, their bravery and skill during the war
was instrumental in the desegregation of the U.S. troops when President Truman issued Executive Order 9981 in
1948, which ended years of segregation in the armed forces.
On the home front, many African Americans left the South and moved to the west coast. There they found
skilled jobs that paid well. They also found prejudice. African Americans made some progress on the home front.
During the war, thousands of African Americans left the South. The majority moved to the Midwest, where
better jobs could be found, especially in factories for the war effort. Between 1940 and 1944, the percentage of
African Americans working in skilled or semi-skilled jobs rose from 16% to 30%. In 1942, civil rights leader James
Farmer formed a new interracial organization to fight discrimination. It was called the Congress of Racial
Equality (CORE).
As African American migrants moved into already overcrowded cities, tensions rose. In 1943, a tidal wave of
racial violence swept across the country. The worst conflict occurred in Detroit at the Detroit River. What started
as a tussle between blacks and whites at a beach on the Detroit River mushroomed into a riot when white
sailors stationed nearby and joined in the fighting. The fighting raged for three days, fueled by false rumors that
whites had murdered a black woman and her child and that black rioters had killed seventeen whites. By the
time President Roosevelt sent federal troops to restore order, nine whites and twenty-five blacks lay dead or
dying.
The violence of 1943 revealed to many Americans—black and white, alike—just how serious racial tensions had
become in the United States. By 1945, more than 400 committees had been established by American
communities to improve race relations. Progress was slow, but African Americans were determined not to give
up the gains they had made.
MEXICAN AMERICANS
Like African Americans, most Mexican Americans served in segregated units. Seventeen Mexican American
soldiers were awarded the Congressional Medal of Honor. An all Mexican American unit—Company E of the
141st regiment, 16th Division—became one of the most decorated units of the war. Mexican Americans also
suffered prejudice at home. The worst race riots directed at Mexican Americans occurred in 1943 in Los Angeles.
In the violent summer of 1943, Los Angeles exploded in anti-Mexican “zoot suit” riots. The zoot suit was a style
of dress adopted by Mexican American youths as a symbol of rebellion against tradition. It consisted of a long
jacket, pleated pants, and a broad-brimmed hat. The riots began when eleven sailors in Los Angeles reported
that they had been attacked by zoot-suit-wearing Mexican Americans. This charge triggered violence involving
thousands of servicemen and civilians. Mobs poured into Mexican neighborhoods and grabbed any zoot-suiters
they could find. The attackers ripped off their victims’ clothes and beat them senseless. The riots lasted almost a
week and resulted in the beatings of hundreds of Mexican American youths, as well as many other minorities.
Despite such unhappy experiences with racism, many Mexican Americans believed that their sacrifices during
wartime would lead to a better future.
Mexican American workers made special contributions to the war effort. As defense factories and the military
absorbed workers, western farms and railroads faced an acute shortage of workers. In 1942, the United States
and Mexico negotiated the bracero program, under which the Mexican government recruited workers to come
to the United States on six-to-twelve month contracts. Although bracero workers still faced discrimination, the
U.S. government tried to improve working conditions because it wanted to keep public opinion in Latin America
favorable to the Allied cause.
NATIVE AMERICANS
On each of the Pacific Islands that American troops stormed during World War II, the Japanese heard a “strange
language gurgling” in their radio headsets. The code seemed to have Asian overtones, but it baffled everyone
who heard it. In fact, the language was Navajo, which was spoken only in the American Southwest and
traditionally had no alphabet or other written symbols. Its “hiddenness” made it a perfect candidate for a code
language. Philip Johnston, the son of a missionary to the Navajo, and one of the few non-Navajo people fluent in
the Navajo language, was the man responsible for using the Navajo during the war. Navajo code talkers
provided indispensable service in every Marine assault in the Pacific beginning in 1942 and until the end of the
war.
Though the Navajo had no words for combats and or other military terms, they developed new terms, such as
“chicken hawk” for “dive bomber” and “war chief” for “commanding general.” Throughout the Pacific
Campaign—from Midway to Iwo Jima—the code talkers were considered indispensable to the war effort.
Despite their poor treatment by the United States throughout history, the Navajo finally received national
recognition in 1969 for their services during World War II.
Create a chart with three columns. Title the chart “Minorities and World War II.” Label the first column “Actions
and Accomplishments,” label the second column “Positive Effects,” and label the third column “Negative
Effects.” Now, fill out each column in paragraph format. USE GOOD DETAILS AND BE SPECIFIC.