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TIMELINE / 1830 to 1840 Date Country Theme 1830 Tunisia Political Context With the capture of Algiers, France ousts the Ottoman Empire and asserts its claim to the western Mediterranean. The beys and the regency’s elite then become aware of the dangers posed by the Europeans. 1830 Romania Migrations The beginning of Greek immigration into Brăila. Many Greeks emigrate to Wallachia and settle in the Romanian ports on the Danube after the liberalisation of commerce on the Danube and Black Sea (1828). 1830 France Migrations Polish intellectuals arrive in Paris, which becomes the capital of exiled Poland. 1830 France Travelling From 1830, among artists and intellectuals of the 19th century the journey to the ‘Orient’ to discover ancient civilisations becomes a kind of ritual. 1830 - 1840 Jordan Political Context Bilad al-Sham (Greater Syria, including Jordan) is under Ibrahim Pasha who is ruling on behalf of his father, Muhammad 'Ali of Egypt. Ibrahim Pasha is forced to retreat to Egypt through Transjordan where the Egyptian army suffers severe casualties on its way back to Egypt. 1830s Greece Cities And Urban Spaces Eduard Schaubert and Stamatios Kleanthis pioneer the urban redevelopment of Athens, initially under Ioannis Kapodistrias. They produce topographical plans of Athens and, in doing so, lay the foundations for the new capital. 1830s United Kingdom Great Inventions Of The 19th Century The development of steam power in the early 19th century also applies to marine transport. Steamships shorten distances, but they also require fuelling stations. In 1839, Britain acquires Aden as one fuelling station on the route to India. Before construction of the Suez Canal, travellers sailed to Alexandria and continued overland to Suez, picking up a steamer there. 1830s United Kingdom Migrations With the new Kingdom of Greece, guaranteed by Britain, some Greeks migrate to Athens and the new state, while others migrate from Greece to Constantinople, which has a huge Greek community. Relations between Turks and Greeks suffer during the 19th century, leading to a slow cantonisation of the region, culminating with the exchange of populations (Greeks from Turkey to Greece and Turks from Greece to Turkey) after World War I. From the same period, expansion of the old Hellenic port of Alexandria witnesses a mass migration of Greeks, mostly from the Aegean islands to the city, making them, by the end of the century, the wealthiest and most influential community in Alexandria. 1830 Spain Fine And Applied Arts From the 1830s onwards the Moorish or Alhambresque style is popular in Europe, especially in Spain, but also in England, Austria, Russia, Germany and the USA. This style is found not only in applied arts but also in architecture and interior decoration including the well-known “Moorish” smoking or retiring rooms. 1830 Spain Migrations From 1830 onwards many Spaniards emigrate to North Africa (Morocco and Algeria), coinciding with the French occupation of Algiers and as a consequence of the economic crises in Spain. The emigrants are mostly from the Mediterranean regions such as Alicante, Almería and the Balearic Islands. 1830 Spain Reforms And Social Changes Fernando VII has no sons, only daughters, so abolishes under Pragmática Sanción, the Salic Law, introduced by the Spanish branch of the Bourbon dynasty, which forbids women to reign. After the death of Fernando VII in 1833, his eldest daughter becomes Queen of Spain as Isabel II. 1830 France Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion Battle of Hernani, a drama by Victor Hugo. 1830 France Political Context June–July: the invasion of Algiers. 1830 France Political Context 27–29 July: the Second French Revolution of July 1830 results in the fall of Charles X, who is succeeded by his cousin Louis-Philippe. 1830 France Political Context The July Monarchy: Louis-Philippe becomes “Citizen-King”, and economic growth is joined by increased poverty. 1830 - 1840 Germany Economy And Trade Industrialisation and the Industrial Revolution. 1830 Germany Reforms And Social Changes The French July Revolution strengthens the power of the Besitzbürgertum (the landed gentry). Revolutions in central and north Germany enforce constitutional state reforms. 1831 France Rediscovering The Past The Chair in Egyptology at the Collège de France is created by a decree made by King Louis-Philippe of France on 12 March. 1831 United Arab Emirates (Sharjah) Cities And Urban Spaces The population of Sharjah rises to 13,900 inhabitants, its urban features are now much more substantial in terms of its domestic, commercial and official architecture. 1831 - 1835 Italy Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion Once Rossini has left the stage, his place is taken by Gaetano Donizetti (1797–1848) and Vincenzo Bellini (1801–1835). They introduce the new romantic spirit into melodrama and establish a tighter link between words and music. Their style is characterised by greater attention to the psychology of the different characters. 1831 Italy Political Context Giuseppe Mazzini founds the republican movement for national unification, Giovine Italia (Young Italy). 1831 Greece Political Context The First Governor of Greece, Conte Ioannis Kapodistrias, is assassinated. 1831 Spain Economy And Trade Foundation of the Madrid stock exchange (Bolsa de Madrid), driven by the state's need to raise funds to cover, among other things, debts arising from the Carlist wars. 1831 Lebanon Political Context Bashir II breaks away from the Ottoman Empire, allies with Muhammad ‘Ali Pasha of Egypt and assists his son Ibrahim Pasha in a siege of Acre. This siege lasts seven months before the fall of the city on 27 May 1832. They also conquer Damascus on 14 June 1832. 1831 France Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion George Sand (Amantine Aurore Dupin) writes Indiana, a novel about a woman’s emotional journey. 1831 Turkey Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion 11 November: The first newspaper in Ottoman Turkish, Takvim-I Vekayi, published by the state. 1832 Romania Fine And Applied Arts Gheorghe Asachi founds in Iaşi a lithographic printing press called Institutul Albinei (The Bee Institute). 1832 France Travelling Like many artists, the painter Eugène Delacroix travelled to North Africa, Morocco and Algeria, returning with many paintings and sources for inspiration. 1832 Spain Economy And Trade Mechanisation of the textile industry in Catalonia with the introduction of steam-powered machines. Progress in the textile industry continues in Catalonia until the 1920 crisis. 1832 Spain Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion Publication of Washington Irving's Tales of the Alhambra, a collection of essays, verbal sketches and stories that Irving began to write while he was staying in the Alhambra in Granada. The book is influenced by Romanticism and includes Spanish legends and traditions. 1832 - 1834 Portugal Political Context Civil war. Pedro returns to Portugal as Regent to defend his daughter’s rights. He launches military operations from Azores and Porto against the absolutist faction of Prince Miguel favored by the Quadruple Alliance. After the Miguelists’ defeat, peace terms depend on the Évora-Monte Convention and Prince Miguel’s exile. 1832 Portugal Economy And Trade Statesman and jurist José Mouzinho da Silveira (1780–1851) abolishes old taxes over real estate income, privileges and immunities detrimental to the kingdom’s economy. He creates the Tribunal do Tesouro Público for tax collection and Treasury administration. He defines the powers of the Minister of Finance and regulates Customs administration, among other reforms. 1832 France Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion La Sylphide is a Romantic ballet by Fillippo Taglioni in which his daughter, Marie, danced en pointe in the title role. 1832 Germany Political Context From 27 to 30 May an apparently non-political country fair, the “Hambacher Fest”, was held by a German national democratic assembly, demanding freedom, national entity and popular sovereignty. 1832 Germany Reforms And Social Changes The “Hambacher Fest” demonstrates the liberal, democratic and national opposition in Germany. 1833 Romania Cities And Urban Spaces Copou, one of the first public gardens in Romania, is laid out in Iaşi, Moldavia, at the initiative of Prince Mihail Sturdza. 1833 Spain Political Context Isabel II becomes Queen of Spain. The Salic Law forbidding women to reign had been abolished in 1830 because Fernando VII's only heirs were female. His brother, Carlos de Borbón, asserts his claim to the throne against his niece (first Carlist War, 1836–39); two further Carlist wars will follow (1846–49, 1872–76). 1833 - 1835 Portugal Economy And Trade 18 September: The first Commercial Code by jurist José Ferreira Borges grants free trade and distribution of goods, abolishing monopolies, privileges and real estate transfer taxes. Article 2 defines a commercial act and the nature of intervening actors. 1833 Portugal Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion The death of Luísa Todi (b. 1753), the most celebrated mezzo-soprano opera singer in Portugal. Luísa began her musical career when she was 14 years old. She performed in major European cities and was invited to perform in the courts of Catherine of Russia and Frederick William of Prussia. 1833 Germany Great Inventions Of The 19th Century First communication by telegram. 1833 Turkey Political Context 8 April: Treaty of Kütahya with Egypt. The Ottomans recognise Syria, Palestine and Lebanon as within the sphere of the Egyptian control. 1833 Turkey Political Context 8 July: Defensive Treaty of Hünkar İskelesi with Russia establishes Russian naval superiority in the Black Sea. 1834 Greece Cities And Urban Spaces Athens becomes the capital of the newly established state. 1834 Greece Cities And Urban Spaces In October, King Otto issues a decree for reconstruction of the city of Sparta. Over the ancient city Bavarian city-planners, headed by Fr. Staufert, design a city for 100,000 inhabitants based on the Ippodamia system, with wide roads and many squares. 1834 Greece Rediscovering The Past The Numismatic Museum is established. In 1843, it is amalgamated with the National Library and housed in a room at the University of Athens. 1834 United Kingdom Travelling A. W. Kinglake’s Eothen is the best known of the many travel books to the East. William M. Thackeray, Benjamin Disraeli and Anthony Trollope all travel to the Near East, others wander around Asia Minor and the Levant recording their impressions, often in search of classical inscriptions. 1834 United Kingdom Political Context The development of steam power brings increased trade and travel to the eastern Mediterranean. This leads to the publication of travel literature and an interest in the archaeology of the Bible. A. W. Kinglake’s Eothen is the most widely read of the travel books. 1834 Serbia Political Context In Vienna in 1813 Dimitrije Davidović, politician, diplomat, author of the Candlemas Constitution and one of the founders of journalism in Serbia, launches Novine Serbske, Serbia’s first daily newspaper. The newspapers are printed in Serbia for the first time in 1834. 1834 Egypt Economy And Trade A Khedival Decree promulgates the issue of an Egyptian currency consisting of a bi-metallic base of gold and silver. The Egyptian pound, known as the geneih is introduced, which replaces the Egyptian piastre (ersh) as the main unit of currency. 1834 Spain Fine And Applied Arts During his Grand Tour, after visiting Italy, Greece and Egypt, Owen Jones visits Granada and the Alhambra. His six month stay in the Alhambra is very important in the development of his ideas about polychromy and design. 1834 Spain Political Context Estatuto Real signed by the Queen Regent, María Cristina de Borbón, as a royal charter similar to the one under the French King Louis XVIII. There is no constitution, but it has two chambers (similar to the British House of Lords and House of Commons) and a government, with a president and ministers. 1834 Republic of Macedonia (FYROM) Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion The birth in Ohrid of Kuzman Shapkarev (1834–1909), eminent Macedonian folklorist, ethnographer, educator and author of textbooks. Owing to his collecting activities a great deal of Macedonian intangible heritage was spared from oblivion. He was a teacher in Ohrid, Bitola, Prilep and Kukush. Later he worked and lived in Sofia. Although his collections of oral folk literature were published as Bulgarian, most of his works originated from Macedonia. 1834 - 1836 Portugal Political Context Queen Maria II (1819–53) regains the crown after her father’s death and the liberals’ victory. The Queen has to cope with the transition from absolutism to constitutionalism and disputes between opposing factions, conservatives on one side (Cartismo supporters of the 1826 Charter) and radicals on the other (Vintismo defenders of the Constitution of 1822). 1834 Portugal Reforms And Social Changes May: Religious orders are abolished and expropriated by decree; some of the assets of the crown, the Queen’s household and the absolutist aristocracy are nationalised. Monasteries are closed immediately and their buildings adapted, but women's convents remain open until the departure or death of the last nun. 1834 Germany Reforms And Social Changes Standardisation of the Abitur (equivalent to the A-Level system used elsewhere) which allows students to enter German universities. 1834 Germany Travelling The Sanssouci Palace in Potsdam is connected to Berlin by rail, one of the first electrified railway sections in Old Germany. Since 1911, the Palace has been used as a film location (i.e. The Blue Angel, 1930). 1835 United Arab Emirates (Sharjah) Political Context The British impose a Treaty to prohibit maritime warfare among the Arab littoral sheikhdoms during the pearling season from May to November with Britain as enforcer of the peace. The British now term the lands of the signatory sheikhdoms as “The Trucial Coast” or “Trucial Oman”. The Treaty is renewed regularly until 1853, when a Perpetual Treaty is put into place. 1835 - 1837 Italy Reforms And Social Changes For the first time, a cholera epidemic hits Italy, killing more than 140,000 (26,000 in Palermo and 19,600 in Naples). Its causes remain unknown until the 1880s. Its spread is favoured by poor sanitation in urban centres. Cholera epidemics hit poor people especially and often occasion social unrest. 1835 Serbia Political Context The First Constitution of the Principality of Serbia (the Candlemas Constitution) is prompted by the autocratic rule of Miloš Obrenović, founder of the Obrenović Dynasty and Serbian Prince (1815–39; 1858–60). It is signed in 1835 in the city of Kragujevac, with the intention to limit the absolute power of Miloš, but under pressure from the Porte (Turkish Government), Austria and Russia the Constitution is abolished as early as the following year. 1835 Egypt Opening of shipping routes between Alexandria and Marseille. Great Inventions Of The 19th Century 1835 Spain Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion The premiere of Don Álvaro o la fuerza del sino by the Duke of Rivas marks the beginnings of Spanish Romanticism in the theatre, especially tragedy, further developed in Don Juan Tenorio by José Zorrilla. All the Romantic plays have elements from poetry and novels and some have a historical background. 1835 Portugal Reforms And Social Changes The buildings and portable heritage collected from the confiscations are sold in public auction to an emergent new aristocracy and a newly empowered upper middle class and the proceeds used to fund part of the state deficit. 1835 France Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion Le Père Goriot by Honoré de Balzac tells the tragic story of a father’s love for his two daughters. 1835 Turkey Political Context Reorganisation of the bureaucracy and introduction of a new system of rank. 1835 France Fine And Applied Arts Germany Cities And Urban Spaces The daguerreotype process. 1835 - 1838 The first section of railway is established between Nürnberg and Fürth (6 km); the building of the longhaul between Leipzig and Dresden is finished in 1838. 1835 Turkey Reforms And Social Changes 1 July: The War Academy is founded. 1835 Turkey Reforms And Social Changes Bureaucracy is reorganised and a new rank system is introduced. 1836 Lebanon Travelling The discovery of the Jeita Grotto, credited to Reverend William Thomson. Further expeditions reveal the depth and the importance of the cave. 1836 Austria Great Inventions Of The 19th Century Austrian Lloyd, the main steamship company on the Mediterranean, with headquarters in Trieste, is established. 1836 Austria Great Inventions Of The 19th Century A stretch of the Northern Railway between Floridsdorf and Deutsch-Wagram comes into operation using steam-powered locomotives. 1836 Egypt Reforms And Social Changes Rifa’a al-Rafi’ al-Tahtawi founds the School of Languages to educate and train professional interpreters and translators. 1836 Spain Political Context The Queen Regent, María Cristina, is forced to reinstate the 1812 Constitution after a military coup (pronunciamiento) in order to get support from the liberals in the First Carlist War. Under the Desamortización de Mendizábal Church properties are disentailed to fund the war. General Espartero takes over the Regency from the Queen in 1841. 1836 Portugal Reforms And Social Changes The slave trade is prohibited in possessions south of the Equator by a law introduced by Marquis of Sá da Bandeira (1795–1876) for philanthropic and economic reasons. The loss of Brazil, and British pressure, persuades the rulers to endorse abolition to retain in Africa the African labour needed to develop the colonies there. In 1869, King Louis I (1838–89) decrees abolition. 1837 - 1840 Tunisia Reforms And Social Changes Foundation of the Polytechnic or military school of Bardo, responsible for the education of executives of the army and public administration. The School provides education in the art of military strategy, scientific disciplines, foreign languages, literature and religion. 1837 Romania Rediscovering The Past Two peasants find a Gothic hoard (4th–5th centuries AD) – the Pietroasa Treasure – near a village from Buzău county (Wallachia). Unfortunately, only 12 of the 22 golden pieces – jewellery and vases – were preserved. 1837 Romania Reforms And Social Changes Based on the Organic Regulations adopted in 1831, the National Assembly of Wallachia includes for the first time, apart from its traditional categories (the clergy and the aristocracy), representatives of the middle classes. 1837 France Great Inventions Of The 19th Century Inauguration of the first passenger railway line in France to and from Paris and Saint-Germain-en-Laye. 1837 Lebanon Travelling The Galilee earthquake. In the 17th century, Fakhr-al-Din II took over Beaufort castle, but was defeated by the Ottomans who destroyed the upper portion. The earthquake causes further damage to the structure and the ruins become a quarry and a shelter for sheep. 1837 - 1840 Italy Great Inventions Of The 19th Century Naples and Turin are the first Italian towns to have gas street lightning. 1837 Greece Fine And Applied Arts Athens School of the Fine Arts is established with three departments: the School of Crafts, School of Industrial Crafts and the School of Fine Arts. 1837 Greece Rediscovering The Past The Archaeological Society of Athens is established. Its aim is to encourage archaeological-excavation management of antiquities in Greece. 1837 Greece Reforms And Social Changes The University of Athens opens. It is the first university to be established in the eastern Mediterranean. 1837 Egypt Reforms And Social Changes The year sees the founding of Egypt’s oldest commercial science study centre, when the School of Account is established during Muhammad ‘Ali’s Era. 1837 Spain Economy And Trade The feudal system had been abolished under the Cádiz Constitution of 1812 but not completely enacted until 1837. 1837 Turkey Cities And Urban Spaces The first blueprints for a new Istanbul are prepared by Helmuth von Moltke, a general in the Ottoman army working for its modernisation, under direct orders from Mustafa Reşid Paşa. 1838 Serbia Founding of Belgrade University. Political Context 1838 Portugal Rediscovering The Past Auto de Gil Vicente written by Almeida Garrett (1799–1854). The plot revives the 16th-century court of King Manuel I where a play by Gil Vicente (founder of Portuguese modern theatre) is performed during the celebrations for the marriage of his daughter Princess Beatriz. 1838 Portugal Travelling Building of Pena Palace in Sintra, close to Lisbon, begins. This eclectic summer residence, commissioned by King Fernando II, combines Neo-Manueline, Neo-Islamic and Neo-Renaissance styles. The use of the Islamic decorative influences in a royal palace contributes to the Portuguese society’s acknowledgement of its Islamic past. 1838 Turkey Political Context Founding of the Ministry of Finance and formation of Sublime Council for Judicial Ordinances. The title “grand vizier” becomes “prime minister". 1838 Turkey Rediscovering The Past Sultan Mahmud II gave some parts of the bas reliefs of the temple of Assos to France and he also authorises French archaeologist Charles Texier (1802–71) to take away parts of the frieze from the temple of Artemis in Magnesia ad Meandrum. 1839 Italy Great Inventions Of The 19th Century First Italian railway line (Napoli–Portici, 8 km). In the following years, other railway lines are inaugurated in other Italian states, e.g. Milano–Monza (1840), Pisa-Livorno (1844), Padova–Venezia (1846), Torino– Moncalieri (1848). Political fragmentation is an obstacle to the construction of long railway lines. 1839 United Kingdom Reforms And Social Changes The British Ambassador in Constantinople, Stratford Canning, has been credited with influencing the reforms in Turkey during the 19th century, in particular the decree of 1839, initiating a programme of liberal reform in the Ottoman Empire. Some of the changes are superficial, but nonetheless highly visible, such as the adoption of Western dress and titles. Other changes are seen in the culmination of social transformations within the Empire. 1839 United Kingdom Political Context British control of India is driven by trade. Steamships require fuelling stations. To this purpose Aden is occupied and controlled imperially from India for a century. Most British control of the Middle East is indirect and informal. Aden becomes a Crown Colony, with partial control of the Hinterland. 1839 Portugal Travelling Silva Porto, born in poverty in Portugal, trader, farmer and explorer, settles in Bié, Angola, from where he, with his pombeiros (long-distance trade agents), tours Central Africa between 1839 and 1890. The descriptions of his travels that he sent to Lisbon became legendary and a precious source of data. 1839 Lebanon Cities And Urban Spaces The Jesuits come to Beirut and build a modest school. 1839 Turkey Reforms And Social Changes February: A plan for the modernisation of general education is approved. 1839 Turkey Political Context 3 November: Mustafa Reşid Paşa declares the Imperial Rescript of Gülhane (the beginning of the Tanzimat reforms), granting basic rights to Ottoman subjects and declaring a policy of state reform. These reforms included the "fair and public trial[s] of all accused regardless of religion”, the creation of a system of "separate competences, religious and civil”, and the validity of non-Muslim testimony. 1840 Romania Economy And Trade Austrian engineers Karol and Rafael Hoffmann and Carol Maderspach initiate the extraction of coal in the Jiu Valley (south Transylvania), which was and still is the main coal-mining region of Romania. 1840 Romania Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion Top hats begin to be worn in the United Principalities, where they were called joben, from the name of Jobin, the French merchant who first sold them in Bucharest. 1840s United Kingdom Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion Western classical music penetrates the courtly circles of the Ottoman Empire. The imperial Ottoman family includes composers, such as Sultan ‘Abd al-‘Aziz who composes dance music. On a visit to London in 1867, the band of the Grenadier Guards plays one of the Sultan’s own compositions at a reception for him. 1840 Lebanon Political Context Conflicts between the Druze and the Maronite Christians explode. A Maronite revolt against the feudal class erupts, lasting till 1858. 1840 Turkey Political Context After his term as governor in Samos, Kostaki Musurus Paşa, a Phanariot Greek becomes the first Ottoman envoy to independent Athens (1840–47) followed by Vienna (1848) and London (1851–55). 1840 Turkey Great Inventions Of The 19th Century 23 October: The Ottoman Ministry of Post is established in Istanbul. 1840 Turkey Reforms And Social Changes 7 February: The tax system is reorganised. 1840 Turkey Reforms And Social Changes 12 October: The Ministry of Post is established. 1840 Turkey Reforms And Social Changes Official recognition of the Mâli Takvim (Rumi calendar) as the second calendar system alongside the Hijra calendar. 1840 Turkey Reforms And Social Changes The first mixed courts are introduced to hear civil and criminal cases involving Muslims and non-Muslims. 1840 Turkey Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion 3 July: The first newspaper in Ottoman Turkish published by a private individual, Cerîde-I Havâdis (Journal of News), begins to appear in İstanbul as a weekly, published by an English journalist, William Churchill.