Download Paper - TRANSED 2012

REALIZING UNIVERSAL ACCESS AND MOBILITY FOR JAMAICAN RURAL
RESIDENTS IN A MULTI-MODAL TRANSPORT MODEL
Chong, Yasmin
Consumer Advocacy Centre for Utilities (CACU), Kingston Jamaica
[email protected]
SUMMARY
This paper contends that one of the primary contributing factors to the sub-optimal
performance in rural Jamaica’s agricultural and education sectors is that of limited
and/or a lack of access to proper transportation infrastructure and the resultant high
costs of those services. This contention is based on several factors such as poor
infrastructure conditions, under-resourced budgets, planning deficiencies and weak
approaches and strategies to rural economic and social development, thereby
inhibiting increased productivity levels, poverty reduction and economic growth.
The premise of the paper is that universal access to transportation is a key
component of rural development and poverty reduction. One important input in
eradicating rural poverty is human capital development and improved access to
transportation in rural areas also provides access to critical social services like
education, health care and the environment, which directly enable and enhance the
quality of human capital in addition to having a positive impact on labour and
productivity.
In order to realize universal access to transport and transport services in rural areas,
the paper concludes by identifying and recommending the most appropriate
approach within the context of the country’s multi-modal transportation policy, the
severe domestic social and economic conditions and the challenges faced in
providing a modern and efficient transportation system throughout the country.
Key Words: transportation; access; rural; poverty; growth; development;
PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
The specific purpose of the research is to highlight the most appropriate strategy to
providing improved transportation access for rural areas and how this access would
improve the socio-economic conditions of rural areas, contribute to national
development, economic growth and to achieving the objectives set out in Vision
2030, the roadmap for making Jamaica, the place of choice to live, work, raise
families and conduct business.
METHODOLOGY
The research utilized data collection techniques which included discussions with
parents, rural area schools’ principals, rural community residents, Ministers of
Government (agriculture, transport and education), farmers, agricultural workers and
transport businesses and operators to ascertain their opinions and views on the
effects of transportation on productivity and education/labour in their communities.
Additionally, the author also made use of other resources in the form of published
articles and literature to support the recommended strategy to realizing universal
access and mobility for rural area residents.
RESULTS OR EXPECTED RESULTS
The recommended approach to providing universal access for rural residents
identified the utilization of two transport modes from within the multi-modal transport
system, as being most appropriate for improving access to transportation. The two
transport modes - land/road and rail - would be integrated primarily through the
implementation of a “hub and spoke” design, to facilitate and improve productive
mobility and socio-economic pressures associated with rural communities.
GLOBALIZATION AND JAMAICA
While becoming considerably integrated into the global economy Jamaica’s
economy, like that of the global marketplace has experienced profound adjustments
over the past thirty years. This process has been a particularly long, bumpy and
difficult one for small states such as Jamaica. The socio-economic impact has
resulted in the disappearance of inefficient industries, weakened national decisionmaking processes and productive sectors forced to compete with the rest of the
world on terms largely dictated by industrialized countries [Hughes, 2006]. The
impact on small economies has been disruptive given the inability of these
economies to effectively respond to these debilitating forces.
From as early as the 1970s into the early 1980s, Jamaica benefited from favourable
international trade terms and agreements and business was conducted under a
severely restricted financial regime. In the late 1980s and into the 1990s, Jamaica
underwent a process of full market liberalization, lifting capital controls and easing
foreign exchange restrictions. This move was expected to produce considerable
opportunities for investment and economic growth, given the likely increase in the
demand for goods and services. Unfortunately, the expected inflows were not
realized and with the state weakened in its ability to provide basic infrastructure, an
educated work force and assist investment inflows, the economy experienced
contraction, macro-economic turbulence and periods of social instability. The
Jamaica Human Development Report 2005 [JHDR, 2005] quite rightly points out that
“while integration demands a one-time adjustment in the structure of production,
continued participation in the global economy constantly demands re-adjustment and
redeployment.” This therefore underscores the importance of the efficiency and
effectiveness of the state in global integration.
In addition to the external risks associated with the global system, Jamaica was
challenged throughout much of the 1990s with the collapse of the local banking
sector. The crisis severely hampered the adjustment process, especially since it
was resolved at great expense on the public purse, in order to prevent a loss of
confidence in the country’s financial system and minimize capital flight.
Jamaica’s economy remains challenged by slow and low growth compounded by the
demise of the manufacturing sector, high unemployment and rising poverty levels.
Nevertheless, some positive results have been recorded in the ICT and tourism
sectors, where growth has been steady even during the current recessionary period.
The development approach continues to be one where the state plays the traditional
facilitator role and the private sector taking the lead role in the economy. The model
focuses on economic reform to allow for integration into the global economy and on
creating the infrastructure and sustainable policy framework to stimulate private
sector investment.
The Government has identified transport infrastructure and
tourism as strategic growth and development areas and the two which would open
new areas of development and support to the productive sectors such as agriculture.
So after about twenty years of reforms, deliberate efforts at strengthening an
integrative policy environment and building out some of the necessary infrastructure,
investment flows have been steadily improving. The economy remains relatively
stable but fragile as the most pressing challenge for the country is its debt, currently
estimated at 139.7% of GDP. The process therefore needs to be accelerated and
the assets leveraged in order to achieve the goals set out in Vision 2030 Jamaica National Development Plan.
TRANSPORT AND ECONOMIC GROWTH
1. The Jamaican transport model
Transportation of people, goods and services is integral to economic development
and for Jamaica it is no different. The sector facilitates access to social and
economic life for the island’s 2.7 million inhabitants by sustaining trade, ensuring
employment, health, education and basic needs for citizens, supports the socioeconomic development of the country as a whole and is the underpinning element
for the development of priority industries such as education and tourism.
Jamaica’s multi-modal transportation system consists of one of the densest road
networks in the world, comprising15,394km of roadway and divided in arterial roads
(844km), secondary roads (717km), tertiary roads (3,225km), urban roads (282km),
parochial roads (10,326km) and 800 bridges on main roads [Ministry of Transport
and Works, 2007]. There is a mainline railway system covering 330.66km of tack,
six privately-owned mining railway lines and 10km of pipelines for petroleum
products. The country is also endowed with a large domestic fleet of private
vehicles, trucks, buses and taxis in addition to a large fleet of Government-owned
and operated public passenger buses.
Since the late 1990s and in partnership with private international investors, the
Government of Jamaica embarked on major infrastructure projects such as Highway
2000, the first access-controlled (toll) roadway on the island, the Northern Coastal
Highway which links Negril in the west to Port Antonio in the east and the Jamaica
Infrastructure Development Programme (JDIP) to upgrade and enhance the
country’s road network. Two international airports, four domestic aerodromes, ten
specialized seaports and three public deep-water ports complete this multi-modal
transport inventory. Many Jamaicans earn their living in the transport sector and a
fairly elaborate network of public institutions has been developed to regulate the
system. In 2005, the transportation sector accounted for the employment and
incomes of over 81,000 persons or 6.7% of the local workforce.
Activities in the transportation segment of the domestic economy are geared towards
achieving the strategies outlined in two important policy documents – the National
Outcome #9, Strong Economic Infrastructure, in the Vision 2030 Jamaica –
National Development Plan and the National Transport Policy. Both documents
contain the policy objectives, strategies and priorities for the further development and
modernization of the national transport infrastructure and the creation of a multimodal regional logistics hub. The broad policy objectives speak to increasing
Jamaica’s competitiveness in the global environment, by lowering transport logistics
costs, fostering economic growth and to underpin continued human development by
attracting overseas investments [Ministry of Transport and Works, 2007].
Transportation not only provides access to goods and services but is also the most
vital component in achieving increased productivity, poverty alleviation, enhanced
access to education and supporting the further development of rural areas and
agriculture, all developmental priorities of the GOJ.
1.1 Agriculture and transport infrastructure
Agriculture’s contribution to the Jamaican economy has steadily declined over the
past few years but still accounts for approximately 5% of GDP (2003-2008 average).
Additionally, the sector has remained an important contributor to export earnings,
with 10.5% in 2004 and 5.7% in 2008. Over the years, the country has developed an
enviable reputation for quality agri-food products such as its Blue Mountain Coffee,
rum, bananas, sugar, ackees, yams and more recently fruit juices and winter
vegetables. The sector is the largest employer of labour in rural Jamaica and
employs about 18.7% [2008] of the total labour force. About half of all Jamaicans
live in rural areas and approximately 80% of the poorest quintile of the population is
rural.
For most developing countries like Jamaica, the agricultural sector is the dominant
industry in the rural economy. Income inflows are unpredictable owing to the
exposure to the vagaries of nature, antiquated methodologies and technology and
limited access to competitive markets. The clear deduction therefore is that the
performance of rural agriculture is plagued with access and mobility issues which are
aggravated by the reality that the sector is poorly served with transport facilities.
Rural transport services tend to be inadequate because of the lack of affordable and
appropriate infrastructure and means of transport. The rural industry is further
affected by the inefficient supply of inputs and limited access to competitive markets.
Feeder roads for example, connecting farmers to farming areas and to markets are
sub-standard, poorly maintained and costly to use. This does not auger well for an
industry which has been the foundation of the local economy and one which has
consistently contributed to economic growth in Jamaica. Much of the country’s
productive capacity is grossly underutilized [see Figure 1] and faces severe
sustainability challenges such as cost, reliability, product quality and delivery to the
market, all rooted in the poor and unregulated transport conditions which exist in the
rural agricultural areas.
Figure 1 - Agricultural Production in Jamaica by Parish
120000.0
100000.0
2007
80000.0
2008
60000.0
2009
40000.0
2010
20000.0
An
n
Tr
el
aw
ny
St
.J
am
es
H
a
no
W
es
ve
tm
r
or
el
an
St
.E
d
li z
ab
et
M
h
an
ch
es
te
C
r
la
re
nd
St
on
.C
at
he
rin
e
St
.
M
nd
St
.
tla
Po
r
Th
om
St
.
ar
y
0.0
as
Production in Tonnes
Agriculture Production in Jamaica by Parish
The most prolific producers of agricultural production would seem to be those parishes furthest
removed
from the
consumption
centres and
for which a high
deliveredaccess
cost
Investment
in major
transport
infrastructure
is fundamental
toproportion
opening of
upthe
farmers’
would
be attributable
to markets,
transport and
spoilage factors
both key
determinants
in internal
logistics.rural
The
to local
and export
to stimulate
the rural
non-farm
economy,
invigorate
towns and
villages,
consumer
demand
for locally-produced
in
agricultural
production
of St.increase
Thomas and
Portland, both
rural parishes,
is well below thatproduce
of the leaders.
urban
and
rural
areas
and
to
facilitate
the
integration
of
rural
areas
into
the
domestic
The relative transport costs per 40’ container to and from these areas are also the highest.
and international economies. Jamaica’s tourism industry is a large consumer of
agricultural products and provides the perfect supply opportunity for the local
agriculture industry. This obvious synergy has not materialized as expected due
primarily to reliability factors – the ability to supply quality products on a timely basis,
at the volumes required and at competitive prices. This issue is directly associated
with poor conditions of rural farm roads and the lack of satisfactory logistics plant
such as storage, warehousing and packaging facilities. These same constraints that
challenge local agriculture’s ability to supply the hotel industry are the same
constraints that create artificial gluts and shortages in the domestic market, leading
to low prices and returns for local farmers [Brewster, 2011].
Improvements in transport are therefore critical for rural development and poverty
alleviation. In 2010, the GOJ embarked on a programme to improve and rationalize
the accessibility of agricultural feeder roads. The criteria used to select the roads
which would benefit under the programme were traffic demand, the safety levels of
the accessibility services and the extent to which the roads reduced the cost of
access to agricultural production. Parishes most affected by Tropical Storm Gustav
– St. Mary, St. Thomas, Portland and St. Andrew – were accorded priority status and
ten (10) farm roads were identified and contracted for rehabilitation under the Gustav
Rehabilitation Programme. The impact of these road upgrades will be felt in reduced
transport costs and improved access to economic opportunities.
1.2 Education and transport infrastructure
Jamaica inherited an education system from the British which over the years, has
been adapted to reflect more local relevance in the curriculum and reading materials
at the primary level. Subsequent cooperation among CARICOM member countries
resulted in a regional approach to education and the most obvious result of that
collaboration was the replacement of the British external examinations with
internationally accredited regional external examinations.
The formal system of education caters to over 800,000 students at the early
childhood, primary, secondary and tertiary levels and is primarily supported by the
Government with participation from the private sector, Churches and Trusts. Formal
education is also provided by private schools. Financial support to the sector is
provided mainly through GOJ allocations with contributions from the private sector,
households (auxiliary fees at the secondary level, cost sharing at the tertiary tier and
payments for education-inputs at all levels) and community and faith-based
organizations. For the 2010/11 financial year, some 13.1% of the national budget
was allocated to education, a 2.5% reduction over the previous year [PIOJ, 2010].
The education budget was distributed as follows: 3.6% for early childhood
education, 34.1% to the primary level, 34.4% to the secondary level and 17.0% to
the tertiary level.
Education and training are key indicators of a country’s competitiveness and an
important determinant of the country’s stage of economic development and potential
for future economic growth. Investment in education is therefore critical in enabling
the creation of a competitive labour pool. Against this background and within the
context of the Vision 2030 Jamaica - National Development Plan, the education
sector’s strategy is to provide universal access to and equal opportunity in education
and training for all, where “every child can learn, every child must learn”.
Although universal primary and secondary education has been attained, the system
has been beset by problems of quality and absenteeism especially in rural areas.
Enrollment in schools and training institutions meet national standards, however,
children in Jamaica’s rural areas face many problems in getting to and from school
as opposed to children resident in urban areas. It should not be surprising therefore,
that a 65% average daily attendance rate in rural area schools is well below that of
the national average of 92.5%. In addition to the widely-known social and economic
issues affecting attendance, distance-related obstacles to schooling has been
identified as one of the major impediments – nutrition and transport - to improving
access to education and training for rural students.
Central government has implemented social programmes in response to rural areas
needs – e.g. breakfast feeding programmes – and attendance has improved but
absenteeism remains at unacceptable levels in rural areas. What this means
therefore is that the cost of education and training in rural areas is higher due to the
absence of adequate transportation infrastructure. Rural communities are served by
a loosely structured and unregulated transportation system consisting of an
inadequate number of private buses and “robot” taxis. Based on the interviews
conducted with three farming households in the rural areas of Goshen, St. Ann and
Longville Park in the parish of Clarendon, participants complained that transportation
from the community in which they reside to school is inadequate, extremely difficult
and unaffordable. Because students pay a lower fare, many children complained
that the taxis and buses did not like to stop for them and as a result, they arrived late
for school most mornings and if they arrived at school after the register was marked
they were recorded as being absent. Physical access to schools is often times
hindered due to the location of schools not being proportionate to the population
distribution, resulting in long travel times, exposure to danger and exorbitant
transportation costs. In many rural communities, transportation is the largest parentfinanced cost and the inability of many rural families to afford transportation is a
major obstruction to the education system in achieving acceptable attendance levels.
Road conditions in farming communities are bad and causes increased costs of
other basic social needs – uniforms, shoes, lunch.
REALIZING UNIVERSAL ACCESS TO TRANSPORT FOR RURAL RESIDENTS
2. Strategic Policy Principles and Objectives
In view of the fact that prior to 2007, the development of the transportation system
occurred in the absence of a comprehensive National Transport Policy, four strategic
objectives were articulated in order to design a sustainable action plan based on
general policy principles of the then National Industrial Plan and the current Vision
2030 Jamaica – National Development Plan (National Outcome #9, Strong
Economic Infrastructure), for the establishment of a modern, efficient, sustainable
multi-modal transport system, providing equal access to transport for the population
and fostering economic growth and human development.
While some progress has been made in achieving the transport goals and objectives
of Vision 2030, the sector continues to be plagued by issues of road network
maintenance, road safety, public transport system, standards and the environment,
all of which have a direct impact on the poor performance of the sector and presents
access problems for rural residents. It is interesting to note that national policy
places particular emphasis on rural development and agriculture in particular and
identifies transportation as the facilitator of a flourishing rural and agricultural
economy. Yet successive governments have paid unequal and/or sparse attention
to the pursuit of this national objective.
2.2 The Way Ahead
The prosperity of the Jamaican economy depends largely on the country’s return to
higher levels of productivity and growth through agricultural development and
education/training. It is therefore a foregone conclusion that until investment in
transportation infrastructure is made a major developmental priority for Jamaica, the
country may be hard-pressed to achieve sustainable levels of growth and eradicate
poverty. Transport is an absolute necessity in today’s global economy where
production efficiencies dictate that goods should be produced for the market and not
for personal consumption [The Tanzania Forum Group for Rural Transport and
Development in cooperation with the International Forum for Rural Transport and
Development (IFRTD). 2003. “The Role of Transport in Poverty Reduction”:10]
In rural areas, both production and consumption are positively affected by improved
transport infrastructure. On the production side, the impact of transport is measured
by accessibility to agricultural lands, supply of inputs and market accessibility.
Transport deficiencies increase input and production costs for farmers, limits
agricultural productivity, affect efficiency in marketing, stymies labour mobility and
constrain associated entrepreneurial and income-generating activities. These
inadequacies produce one result – fewer opportunities for higher incomes, increased
incidence of poverty and reduced personal welfare.
Accessibility to social amenities and the attendant welfare effects explain the
consumption dimension of the role of transport. Improvements in transportation
infrastructure provides increased access to necessary social services such as
education, training and healthcare, which are very important in the drive to eradicate
poverty and enhancing the development and quality of the human capital.
Additionally, labour productivity and mobility are positively influenced by improved
access to transportation. The challenge therefore, is to identify the most appropriate
transport approach to realizing access and mobility for rural areas within the context
of a national multi-modal system in an economy grappling with crisis-level financial
and social realities.
The general transport environment provides a good starting point from which to
tackle the issue of transport access for rural areas and in that regard, the author
suggests a three-pronged approach to providing access for Jamaican rural residents.
This revolves around the “Hub-and Spoke” design (hereafter referred to as the HSD)
involving the integration of three modes: i) road upgrade, rehabilitation and
maintenance; ii) public transportation hubs for major towns across rural parishes and
iii) greater utilization of the railway and the public bus service for rural towns and
villages.
i)
Road upgrade, rehabilitation and maintenance: This recommendation does
not suggest construction of new roads rather resources for recurrent road
improvement and maintenance initiatives should be apportioned and re-directed to
undertake rehabilitative work on rural farm roads. Budgetary support for rural road
improvement must therefore be provisioned annually and a more structured
arrangement must be agreed to between the agencies with responsibility for main
roads (National Works Agency – NWA) and the local parish councils for parochial
roads. Also to be taken into account is the income generation aspect of the
construction, rehabilitation and maintenance of transport infrastructure. Resources
from the JDIP initiative supplemented with means from the Road Maintenance Fund
immediately come to mind as one of the most expeditious ways of satisfying this precondition for the development of rural areas. Road rehabilitation, improvement and
upgrade is the first HSD pillar which would facilitate the establishment of
ii)
Public transportation hubs across rural parishes: An organized and wellregulated network of transport hubs in the major towns of each parish linked by
spokes to the alignment of Highway 2000 and the North Coast Highway, would
provide increased access as the central dispatch facility for the conveyance of
passengers, goods and agricultural produce. Concurrent with the road network
improvement and the establishment of the public transportation hubs, access would
be operationalized by the
iii)
Greater utilization of the railway and the public bus service: A hybrid form of
the current public transport system serving the Kingston Metropolitan Region should
be extended to serve major town centres in rural parishes. Features of the service
would include scheduled transport service during the morning and afternoon peak
periods to move labour and students on a timelier basis and utilization of private
transport operators contracted by Parish Councils and regulated by the state. This
becomes an income-earning activity for local governments, the revenues from which
would be used specifically for the maintenance of parochial roads and the
management and upkeep of the public transportation hubs.
Another
recommendation is that the feasibility of implementing a national school bus service
throughout the island should be examined, a system which would be incorporated in
the aforementioned service, owned by Parish Councils, operated by private
contractors and regulated by the relevant state transport authorities.
Efforts to
resuscitate the rail service should be doubled, given the importance of such a
service to industry through the efficiencies to be gained. Here again the alignment of
the currently dormant railway service, feeds into many of the major town centres of
the island which would house the proposed transportation hubs. The railway’s
primary use would be link rural areas to the rest of the economy through freight
movements but should also be considered for providing a limited passenger service.
CONCLUSION
For Jamaica to produce and grow, it is clear that a modern, efficient and affordable
transport system must be made accessible to rural communities, the bedrock of
production in Jamaica. Improved transportation access would spur efficiencies in
agriculture, connect rural areas to domestic and export markets, thereby creating
wealth and moving the country closer to its goal of poverty eradication, economic
growth and positioning Jamaica to realize its vision as the place of choice to live,
work, raise families and conduct business.
REFERENCES
Brewster, Ancile. 2011. “Internal Logistics and Jamaica’s Competitiveness”
Hughes, Wesley. 2006. Strategic Structural Transformation: The Case of Jamaica.
Presented to the Conference on Globalization and the Problems of Development.
Convened by La Asociacion Nacional de Economistas y Contadores (ANEC)
(February 2006): 6
The Jamaica Human Development Report, 2005: 12
The Tanzania Forum Group for Rural Transport and Development in cooperation
with the International Forum for Rural Transport and Development (IFRTD). 2003.
“The Role of Transport in Poverty Reduction”:10
Ministry of Transport and Works, Government of Jamaica. 2007. National Transport
Policy
Planning Institute of Jamaica. 2010. Economic and Social Survey Jamaica 2010:
22.2
Planning Institute of Jamaica. “Vision 2030 Jamaica – National Development Plan”.
2009
“Vision 2030 Jamaica. Final Draft Agriculture Sector Plan.” Agricultural Task Force,
2009.
Interviews conducted with:
Hon. Roger Clarke, Minister of Agriculture and Fisheries, Government of Jamaica.
February 2011
Families from farms in St. Mary, St. Ann and Clarendon. November 2011, January
2012 and February 2012.