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Howard Wang
Professor Li
Intro to East Asian Civilizations – China V2359
23 April 2004
Reordering the Mind: The Transition to Neo-Confucianism
A great era in East Asian history came to a close with the decline of the Tang dynasty in the
ninth century. The end of the Tang, though nominally differentiated, was, in fact, only a portion of a
much larger change in the East Asian realm. The fall of the dynasty brought with it the end of China’s
expansionistic drive and led to the deterioration of Buddhism as the compelling ideological force of the
age. With China’s political transition to the Song dynasty, the focus of the nation shifted from
expansionism to internal economic, social, and cultural development. In order to address the concerns
of the period, Neo-Confucianism came as an answer to Buddhism. From the eleventh century to the
nineteenth century, Neo-Confucianism would grow and develop into an ideology that would not only
shape the face of China’s social, economic, and political climate, but as a principle that unified Chinese
pre-modern and modern morality under the same moral precepts.
Buddhism survived during the Tang dynasty due to its expansionistic nature and its accessibility
to the masses. However as China evolved into a state more concerned with internal development, NeoConfucianism came as a “new” concept which provided what the new era needed. The success of NeoConfucianism can be attributed to various factors. For one thing, Neo-Confucianism addressed both
social and political concerns; whereas Buddhism’s inherent adaptability was rooted in its detachment
from such secular affairs. Therefore, it could only be relied upon for personal spiritual release from
suffering, and not as a solution to social and political matters.
The emergence and subsequent prominence of a new class of literati in the Song characterized
the focus of the state on a civil administration rather than a military based government. With the Song
focused on establishing a civil rule, the need for increased scholarship among the masses became
apparent. The technological advent of the printing press facilitated the spread of secular education and
scholarship. As a result of this now widely available recorded knowledge, academies of secular learning
sprung up throughout China and replaced the Buddhist temples of the preceding age as the intellectual
hubs of the nation. Furthermore, the Song reformation of the Civil Service Examinations further
underscored the overwhelming demand for schooling and an organized system of education. Efforts to
satisfy this overwhelming demand for education were what brought about the development of NeoConfucianism.
The groundwork for Neo-Confucianism was laid out during the opening years of the Song by a
man named Hu Yuan. Hu fashioned a venerated curriculum of study during the tenth century which
focused on both practical learning and the study of the Confucian classics. His emphasis on practical
learning and technical specialization was a testament to his belief in the pragmatic application of
knowledge. In the same manner, Hu emphasized the practicality and functionality of Confucian
teachings as timeless principles that are enduringly applicable in one’s own time. Hu’s emphasis on the
“structure, function, and literary expression” characteristic of Confucianism belied the Buddhist
principles of ethereality and incommunicability of the truth. This new system of learning developed by
Hu came to be described as “practical” learning, as opposed to the “empty” learning of Buddhism and
even that of Classical Confucianism, which was criticized based on its focus on impractical,
encyclopedic knowledge and its lack of any moral purpose or application.
A key difference between Classical Confucianism and Neo-Confucianism was the addition of the
metaphysical facet in the new philosophy that developed alongside the classical focus on the social and
moral self. This spiritual component added to its versatility and further strengthened the argument put
forth by subscribers of the ideology against competing ideologies, most notably that of Buddhism. This
new metaphysics attempted to structure a philosophy to explain human nature in a way consistent with
the teachings of Confucius and Mencius, all while meeting the challenge from other metaphysical
schools of thought. The Song Neo-Confucians faced two essential concerns in their formation of this
new metaphysical philosophy. Firstly, they needed to affirm the Confucian conception of human nature
as essentially good in a cosmological manner. Secondly, it was essential that they address the need for
the cultivation of a moral and good self by disavowing established Buddhist doctrine regarding the
insignificance and emptiness of self. The solution they developed in order to address these concerns
was based on the conception of an interrelation and dynamic correlation between the concepts of
principle (li) and material-force (qi), where principle corresponded with the abstract element of human
nature, while material-force was described as the tangible, material manifestation of principle. This new
doctrine of human nature brought about the characterization of the Neo-Confucian sage as, not only a
morally just person, but as a spiritual individual concerned with both the social affairs of the world and
the spiritual integrity of the mind.
Yet another defining distinction between Neo-Confucianism and Classical Confucianism was the
way each philosophy portrayed the role of the Confucian sage. Classical Confucianism focused on the
morality and sagehood of the leader or king in the political and social realms of society. However, a
fundamental component of Neo-Confucianism was its universality. In this respect, Neo-Confucians
promoted the idea of sagehood being available and attainable by everyone though the employment of a
standard neoclassical curriculum of schooling accessible by all.
The way in which to attain this sagehood had been discussed and illustrated by works produced
by numerous Neo-Confucian scholars, including Zhou Dunyi, the Cheng brothers, and Zhang Zai. Of
these scholars, the most important contributor to Neo-Confucianism is a man named Zhu Xi, who is
recognized as the synthesizer of the Neo-Confucianism that came to be accepted in China, and
eventually throughout East Asia, from the twelfth century to the nineteenth century. Zhu Xi took the
concepts of Neo-Confucianism presented by his predecessors and elaborated on them in such a way as to
elucidate and further delve into the nature of these principles. His studies on and interpretations of these
separate works came together to form one system of thought in which Neo-Confucianism would become
based upon. Specifically, Zhu Xi’s philosophy was based extensively on the doctrine of principle
(presented by Cheng Yi), which serves as a unifying concept in his philosophy. Zhu Xi’s most lofty
contribution came in the form of his compilation of the Four Books. His Four Books consisted of the
Analects, the Mencius, the Great Learning and the Mean. Although the Analects and the Mencius were
already important works in any Confucian curriculum of education, the Great Learning and the Mean
were not focused upon until Zhu Xi’s inclusion of these works in his anthology gave them prominence
in Neo-Confucian studies. Zhu Xi spent much of his life focused on writing commentaries for these four
works, including prefaces for the Great Learning and the Mean. It’s important to note that his writings
were not excessively technical or philosophical to the point where only the learned elite could
comprehend their meaning. His purpose in composing such writings was to make sure that the didactic
content contained in his work and compilation would be able to reach the widest possible audience. Zhu
Xi’s emphasis on the importance of education is clearly apparent in his writings, most appreciably in his
preface to the Great Learning. In his preface, he stressed the importance of a system of universal
education where learning could be brought to all. He presented a very well-defined process in which an
individual could attain the Neo-Confucian ideal of enlightenment. This process consisted of three
guiding principles, which discussed the importance of recognizing, cultivating, and harnessing the innate
goodness of one’s self. From these three principles, Zhu Xi goes on to present his Eight Steps, which
consecutively and systematically lays out a procedure of self-cultivation for the noble person. Of equal
importance to his preface to the Great Learning was Zhu Xi’s preface to the Mean. Wherein he
discusses the human mind and the mind of the Way and further elaborates on the correlation between the
Message of the Mind (xinfa) and the Way.
To his credit, Zhu Xi’s Four Books, with his prefaces and commentaries, came to be regarded as
a “core curriculum” of sorts in the Neo-Confucian schools of learning. Due to the universal nature of
his teachings, his ideas and practices easily spread with ease. The applicability of his teachings on every
level of education and the basic, systematic nature of his texts, along with the availability of printing,
supported the need for a universal education as recognized by Song reformers.
The pertinence of Neo-Confucian teachings was not recognized merely in the Chinese sphere.
Neo-Confucian ideals were quickly accepted by the rest of East Asia due to their adaptability and
universal applicability, as opposed to Classical Confucianism, which usually focused on issues that were
only of concern to the Chinese mind. The universality of Neo-Confucianism not only contributed
greatly to the rapid spread across East Asia, but, more importantly, it allowed each country to apply the
principles of the philosophy in such a way as to augment their cultural identities as opposed to
sacrificing that identity. Buddhism’s universality can be attributed to its parallel, but distinct,
development alongside a culture. Neo-Confucianism, on the other hand, was almost completely
integrated into the social, political, and spiritual facets of a culture, while it still allowed each country to
maintain its specificity and cultural integrity.
It is to the credit of Neo-Confucianism’s solid doctrine that it was thoroughly subscribed to by
people in all walks of life while still maintaining its ideological integrity from the Song up until the time
of the Ming. However, with political and social modernization, ideological innovation is bound to
follow. During the reign of the Ming dynasty in the sixteenth century, Wang Yang-Ming suggested an
alternative interpretation of the Learning of the Mind and Heart as established by Zhu Xi. Wang’s new
methodology interpreted the Learning of the Mind and Heart in a more intuitive and innate manner as
opposed to Zhu Xi’s interpretation, which focused on the perception of the existentiality of things.
Wang’s perception of the innate integrity of one’s own mind allowed his new doctrine to be more
accessible than even that of Zhu Xi’s teachings. Wang emphasized that the method to reach sagehood
lied not in meeting standards set by the others, but by knowing one’s own mind and recognizing the
innate knowledge within. Therefore, an individual need not be hindered by the inaccessibility of
knowledge, since sagehood, according to Wang, is derived from the mind of the individual. This revised
ideology became widely popular, but also faced staunch disapproval from traditional Neo-Confucian
followers of Zhu Xi’s doctrine. However, it should be noted that Wang’s doctrine was not considered to
be a self-sustaining ideology in its own right, but more of an extension, or appending of Zhu Xi’s
philosophy. In this manner, Wang’s philosophy became accepted as the new School of the Mind and
Heart as Zhu Xi’s philosophy remained as the School of Principle by the majority of Neo-Confucians up
until the nineteenth century.
Although Neo-Confucianism underwent a revision in the Ming dynasty, the founding principles
and unifying tenets of the philosophy still held true in its basic principles. Clearly, Neo-Confucianism
impacted greatly on Chinese Civilization, as each ruling dynasty following the Song until the Mind
officially accepted some form of the philosophy. The Chinese accepted the ideology as the defining
doctrine in their political philosophy and social structure, for instance, through circumstantial instillation
of the philosophy through the Civil Service Examinations. Although the degree of instillation in the
political and social realms of each dynastic institution differed, Neo-Confucianism was an undoubtedly
unifying force in Chinese history. The moral and practical ideals embraced by Neo-Confucianism were
one and the same among these dynasties despite relatively distinctive lines of cultural development by
those such as the Mongols and Manchus, which is, perhaps, a testament to the credibility of NeoConfucianism as a political and spiritual ideology. The universally applicable tenets of moral
responsibility and intellectual cultivation of the self were appropriate and acknowledged by nearly all of
pre-modern China from the Song reformers to the Mongol invaders and served as the uniting principle
of the age.
Works Cited
de Bary, Wm. Theodore, and Irene Bloom, eds. Sources of Chinese Tradition. 2nd ed., Vol. I. New York:
Columbia UP, 1999.
de Bary, Wm. Theodore. East Asian Civilizations. Cambridge: Harvard UP, 1988.
Schirokauer, Conrad. A Brief History of Chinese and Japanese Civilization. 2nd ed. New York:
Wadsworth Thomson Learning, 1989.