Download The Thirty Years War: origins

History 351: Seventeenth
Century Europe
2013
History 351, 2013
• Syllabus is at
http://faculty.history.wisc.edu/sommerville/3
51/351%20course.htm
• Lecture outlines at
http://faculty.history.wisc.edu/sommerville/3
51/351OUTLINE.htm
• Weekly readings will be assigned by the TA
(Ben Shannon)
• Home page:
http://faculty.history.wisc.edu/sommerville/
Click on “Essays and papers” for information
on how to do exams and term papers well.
Requirements
• Two Midterms (in class 2/27, 4/15)
• A final (Tuesday 5/14, 5:05 PM; place
to be announced)
• Four credit students do a 5-6 page
paper due 3/22
• Honors students do an extra paper,
due 5/10
• Attend discussion section; attendance
and participation there count for 20%
of the grade. Contact your TA if you
need to miss discussion.
• Readings: your TA will provide details
• Graduate students: 2 papers, each of
12-15 pages; due 3/22 and 5/10; topics
by arrangement.
Introduction: An Age of
Revolution
• Intellectual and Scientific
Revolutions
• Astronomy : Galileo, Kepler
• Physics and Mathematics:
Newton, Leibniz
• Chemistry: Robert Boyle – “the
Father of Chemistry”
• Mathematics: Simon Stevin
(Dutch; 1585) pioneers the
decimal system of expressing
fractions
Scientific and Intellectual
Revolutions
• Mathematics: John Napier
(Scottish; 1614) pioneers the use
of logarithms, simplifying
complex calculations.
• In 1642, Blaise Pascal (French)
invented a mechanical calculator
which is sometimes seen as the
forerunner of the computer.
• Medicine: William Harvey
(English; 1628) discovered and
described the circulation of
blood.
A Pascaline - a mechanical calculator,
invented by Blaise Pascal (1623-62) in
1642
William Harvey’s book on the circulation
of blood, 1628. It has been called the
most important book in the history of
medicine
Scientific and Intellectual
Revolutions
• New Instruments: the microscope
(Dutch; 1590)
• The telescope (Hans Lippershey;
German/ Dutch; 1608)
• Note military use of telescopes;
the practical, and especially
military applications of science
were important (especially to
governments)
• The borders between different
sciences were not yet clear;
scientists had broad interests;
science (natural philosophy) was
not clearly distinguished from
philosophy in general
Scientific and Intellectual
Revolutions
• René Descartes (French; 1596-1650) is
commonly seen as the founder of
modern philosophy. He also pioneered
co-ordinate geometry (using algebra
to solve problems in geometry), and
did important work in optics.
Scientific and Intellectual
Revolutions
• Sir Francis Bacon (1561-1626) was a
philosopher (and lawyer and statesman) who
stressed the importance of experiment in
science, and the capacity for science to
transform the world to the great benefit of
humanity.
• In 1626 he went out into the snow to do an
experiment on refrigeration, when he caught
a chill that turned into pneumonia and killed
him.
Scientific and Intellectual
Revolutions
• Baruch or Benedict de Spinoza (1632-77) was a
philosopher with a strong interest in the new
scientific discoveries. He made his living by grinding
lenses and died of lung disease perhaps caused by
inhaling ground glass.
• Born into the Jewish community in Amsterdam
(Holland), Spinoza was excommunicated from it, and
was regarded as an atheist by many Christian groups.
Pioneers of new philosophical and scientific ideas
were often criticized by the clergy.
Scientific and Intellectual
Revolutions
• Thomas Hobbes (1588-1677), the
political philosopher, admired Galileo,
and served as Bacon’s secretary when
he was young. He shared many ideas
with Spinoza, and was also accused of
atheism. Hobbes attacked the claims
to authority of the clergy, and was
attacked by them.
Economic change: start of
the agricultural revolution
• A downturn in temperature: the
“Little Ice Age” and the Maunder
Minimum (1645-1715)
• http://depts.washington.edu/sch
katz/podcasts/katz0607_parker.m
p3: Geoffrey Parker on the first
global climate crisis.
• Worsening weather was
accompanied by stagnation of the
population (unlike the sixteenth
century, when population rose
sharply)
• In response to stagnating demand
for food, people tried to cut the
costs of food production, and
tried to develop new markets (in
cloth and other industrial goods,
and in places outside Europe)
Economic change: start of
the agricultural revolution
• One way of cutting costs was to
reduce wages of agricultural
workers, or give them no wages
at all but turn them into serfs,
forced to work for their lords;
enserfment took place in Poland,
Russia, and elsewhere in eastern
Europe.
• Another approach to cutting costs
was to improve agricultural
productivity, by introducing new
farming techniques; this
happened in the Netherlands,
England, and some other areas in
the west; it paved the way for the
agricultural and industrial
revolutions.
Economic change: global
expansion
• Europeans greatly expanded their
trade with distant parts of the
world, especially in America and
Asia. They set up trading bases
and colonies.
• Russians expanded eastward
across the land mass of Siberia.
They set up a fort at Yakutsk in
the 1630s, and reached the
Pacific in 1639.
• Europe’s center of economic
gravity moved from the
Mediterranean to the northwest
and the Atlantic.
Military Revolution
• Scientific and mathematical
advances often had military
application.
• The seventeenth century was an
age of almost constant warfare in
Europe.
• Armies got larger, and guns and
fortifications improved.
• Europeans got better at fighting
wars. This was bad news for
people elsewhere when they
later encountered Europeans.
State building; the “age of
absolutism”
• As armies expanded, more taxes
were needed to pay for them;
bureaucracies grew to collect the
taxes.
• States became more powerful
and centralized; representative
institutions (estates; parliaments;
diets) often declined.
• Since many states were
monarchies, the increase of state
power is often equated with the
growth of “royal absolutism”
State building; the “age of
absolutism”
• In the course of the Thirty Years War (1618-48) some
rulers and their advisors used the war to justify the
employment of emergency powers by the state, and
the curtailment of traditional liberties.
• A fine example is Cardinal Armand-Jean du Plessis,
Cardinal (and Duke) de Richelieu (1585-1642), the
chief advisor to Louis XIII of France.
• A parallel figure in Spain (the other major European
power) was the Count-Duke of Olivares (1587-1645)
State building; the “age of
absolutism”
• Other key figures in the growth of absolutism include
Jules Mazarin, Cardinal Mazarin (1602-61) who
succeeded Richelieu as the chief advisor of the French
monarch; and Frederick William, the Great Elector
(1620-88), the architect of the power of
(Brandenburg-Prussia (and later Germany).
• Most famous of all is the Sun King Louis XIV (16381715) of France, who succeeded Mazarin as his own
chief advisor; here he is in 1661.
State building; the “age of
absolutism”
• State building also took place in areas that were
not absolute monarchies.
• These included Great Britain (England and
Scotland ) and Ireland; there it had become clear
before the end of the century that the monarchy
was not absolute and that the ruler was bound to
rule with parliament and within the law.
• State building also occurred in the Dutch Republic,
where representative institutions survived.
• The Dutch Republic and Britain proved to be more
able to raise money and pay troops than Louis XIV’s
France; people were happier to pay taxes where
there were institutions which represented them.
• The great exception to the rule that the
seventeenth century was an age of state building
was Poland. There the state grew weaker, and in
the eighteenth century it ceased to exist altogether,
swallowed up by its ambitious neighbors (Russia,
Prussia, Austria).
Some unifying factors:
intermarriage; Latin
culture; mercenaries
• Aristocratic and especially royal families tended to
marry into similar families across national boundaries.
• Higher education across Europe was conducted in
Latin. Scholarly books were published in Latin. It was
common to attend university outside your country.
• Lower down the social scale, men often fought as
mercenaries for other countries (and other religions)
than their own.
• There were many economic links across Europe. A key
one was the export of grain from Poland and east
Germany westward through the Baltic and then on to
the Mediterranean. The grain often went in Dutch
ships.
• The same ships brought wool from Spain to the
Netherlands where industrial workers turned it into
cloth; it was then re-exported round Europe.
Some unifying factors:
intermarriage
• The Habsburg (/ Hapsburg) family were fond of
intermarrying with itself, but internationally.
• Habsburgs were rulers of Spain and Austria.
• In the late sixteenth century, Philip II of Spain was the
uncle, cousin, and brother-in-law of the Austrian
Rudolf II.
• Interbreeding took its toll in the form of certain
peculiarities such as the protruding lower lip and chin,
visible here in the Austrian Leopold I (1640-1705; coin
of 1694).
• Leopold was known as “Hogmouth”.
Some unifying factors:
mercenaries
•
•
•
It was often but by no means always men from lower down
the social scale who took military service outside the land of
their birth.
A major exception is Prince Eugene of Savoy (1663-1736).
Eugene was born at Paris. His grandmother was a French
royal princess, and his mother was probably a mistress of
Louis XIV for a while.
Louis refused to appoint Eugene to command in the French
army, so Eugene transferred his loyalty to Leopold
(Hogmouth) and Austria, and inflicted multiple defeats on
Louis.
Major Geo-Political
Changes
• In 1600 Spain was the most powerful country
in Europe, though faced with problems
(including the Dutch Revolt).
• In 1600, France had just emerged from a long
period of religious civil war.
• An important theme of the history of the
first half of the century is the decline of
Spain and the rise of France.
• French aggression against Spain, the Dutch,
and the Holy Roman Empire is a key theme
of late seventeenth century history
(Strasbourg/ Strassburg; Alsace/ Elsass;
Franche-Comté).
Major Geo-Political
Changes
• The seventeenth century was the Golden
Age of Sweden (Gustavus Adolphus 1611-32;
Christina (1632-54), Charles XII (1697-1718)
• The century was also the Golden Age of the
Dutch Republic, notable for its economic
power.
• The Austrian Habsburgs were Holy Roman
Emperors; under Ferdinand II (1619-37) they
tried to increase control over the Empire, but
later they concentrated on the Habsburg
homelands, re-conquering territory from the
Turks after the second siege of Vienna (1683;
the first was in 1529).
• Russia, Brandenburg-Prussia, and England
rose in power late in the century.
Europe: Geography
• Mild, fertile, habitable plains; the
Great European Plain
• Gulf Stream
• Mountains: Urals; Pyrenees; Alps;
Carpathians; Apennines;
Ardennes; Harz Mountains
• Mountain culture: Wales;
Basques; Switzerland.
• Rivers: Rhine; Danube
• Trade: efficiency of water
transport
• Baltic trade: Hanseatic League;
Lübeck
Europe: Geography and
climate
• Mediterranean trade; Venice; Ottoman
Turks;
• oceanic trade routes pioneered by Portugal;
spices and drugs from Spice Islands (East
Indies)
• The Sound: Denmark; Zealand; Copenhagen;
Scania; tolls on trade levied by the King of
Denmark.
• The “Little Ice Age”
• The Maunder Minimum
• The Thames at London froze over in ten
different winters during the century; it froze
more rarely later and not at all since 1814.
• Londoners sometimes held “frost fairs” on
the frozen river (e.g. 1608, 1683-4).
• In 1658 the Baltic froze so solidly that the
Swedes were able to march across the Sound
and besiege Copenhagen.
The Sound (Øresund),
Zealand, and Scania
A “frost fair” on the
Thames at London, 16834.
Population and the
Economy
• Population in the northwest
continued to grow to the midseventeenth century; elsewhere
it stagnated or fell.
• France had the largest
population: 20 million in 1600, up
to 22 million by 1700 (despite
very bad timed in the 1690s)
• Germany had a population of
around 16 million in 1600; it was
badly hit by the Thirty Years War
(1618-48) and fell to around 12
million by 1650; then it rose
again, perhaps reaching 15
million in 1700.
Population and the
Economy
• Spain’s population fell slightly
from about 8.1 to 7.5 million;
emigration to America was a
factor.
• Italy’s population was stable over
the century or rose slightly (13
million in 1600 to 13.3 million in
1700), but fell in the first half;
plague was a factor here (the
plague of 1630 in Milan features
in one of the most famous of all
Italian novels, Manzoni’s
Promessi Sposi of 1827).
• Italy remained densely
populated, with some large cities:
Milan, Venice, Florence, Rome,
Naples.
Population and the
Economy
• In Scandinavia, population in
1700 was about 3 million, a little
higher than in 1600; but there
had been some disasters along
the way.
• Population in Poland and Hungary
probably fell sharply.
• In the Spanish Netherlands and
the Dutch Republic population
rose; the Dutch population
stabilized after 1660.
• The English population rose from
4 to 5 million between 1600 and
the 1630s, and then stagnated.
Causes of Population
Change
• A downturn in economic
conditions made people poorer,
more susceptible to disease, and
less likely to marry young and
have many children.
• Climate change caused or
worsened economic problems.
• Other causes of economic
difficulties include warfare,
debasement of the coinage, and
perhaps the decline of silver
imports from America.
• People began to get married
later; this happened even in
economically prosperous areas
(England; the Netherlands).
Causes of Population
Change: Disease
• Killer diseases included typhus, typhoid, and
smallpox.
• The most feared disease was plague (bubonic,
septicaemic, and pneumonic).
• Plague struck especially in towns and other
densely populated or enclosed communities.
• But populations could often recover quite quickly
from plague.
• In Amsterdam, plague struck in 1623-5 and killed
over 10% of the population; the same happened
in 1635-6, 1655, and 1664.
• But Amsterdam’s population increased from
50,000 to over 200,000 (through immigration).
• Plague disappeared from much of Europe after
outbreaks in 1665-8.
The village of Eyam in Derbyshire; one of
the last places in England to be struck by
plague (1665-6)
Plague Cottage in Eyam
Causes of Population
Change
• The last appearance of plague in
western Europe was at the
French port of Marseille in 1720;
it did not spread.
• Long-term loss of population
resulted from repeated disasters,
such as took place in Germany
during the Thirty Years War, and
in Poland between 1648 and
1667 (including the Cossack
revolt in Ukraine in 1648, Russian
invasion, and Swedish invasion in
the Deluge (“Potop”), 1655-60.
Consequences of
Population Growth
• In Poland and eastern Germany
there was good farming land and
low population density. When
population in the west stagnated,
landowners in the east kept up
their profits by reducing wages
and enserfing the peasants.
• In the northwest, new
agricultural techniques were
developed, decreasing the price
of food.
• When population stagnated in
the northwest in the later part of
the century, agricultural
innovation continued; average
incomes increased, stimulating
industrial demand and
production.
Towns
• Towns in Spain generally
•
•
•
•
declined, though Madrid – the
capital – grew rapidly early in the
century.
Italy’s towns also had some
decline, though Italy remained
highly urbanized.
Some capitals grew greatly:
Berlin, Vienna, and most of all
Paris and London – both of which
had populations of over half a
million late in the century.
Towns connected with Atlantic
trade grew: Liverpool, Hamburg,
Cadiz.
In Poland and Russia the rural
aristocracy had great privileges,
which discouraged urbanization.
• There was little urbanization in
the Ottoman Empire, with the
great exception of
Constantinople.
Wenceslaus Hollar:
London in 1657 (before
the Great Fire of 1666)
Social Structure
• Three “Orders” or “Estates” –
nobles, clergy, commoners.
• A crisis for nobles?
• Junkers in Brandenburg/ Prussia
join with the Elector in ruling.
• Varying numbers of nobles: 10%
in Poland; 5% in Spain (more in
Castile); 2% in France and
England.
• Nobles relatively unimportant in
Holland and Zeeland.
• Great variations in wealth and
power among nobles.
• Spain: hidalgos; Grandees (25
families 1520; 120 in 1650).
Social Structure
• Nobles: often tax exempt; all
offspring usually inherited noble
status; these things not true in
England.
• England: nobles, gentry; Houses
•
•
•
•
of Lords and Commons;
parliament.
Nobles often lose status through
trade or manual work;
dérogeance.
Townsmen; physicians; lawyers;
clergy
Archbishops; bishops; abbots;
priests/ pastors
Peasants; yeomen; where their
tenure was most secure,
agriculture was most productive:
Netherlands; England; Catalonia.
Hollar: the bowing
Gentleman
Hollar: a Lady of the Court
of England
Hollar: a Citizen’s
Daughter
Hollar: a Kitchen Maid
Government
• Republics: imperial free cities in
Germany
(Nuremberg; Augsburg); Swiss
cantons; Venice
• The Dutch Republic; seven
provinces (including Holland);
Orange family; stadholder; crisis
of 1618-19; Maurice (Maurits) of
Nassau; Jan van Oldenbarnevelt;
crisis of 1650; William (Willem) II;
Johan de Witt; crisis of 1672;
William III.
• The English Republic 1649-60;
Oliver Cromwell.
Execution of
Oldenbarnevelt at The
Hague, 1619.
Government: limited
monarchies
• Sweden: riksdag (four estates);
monarchs deposed 1569, 1599;
Form of Government 1634;
constitutional revolution of 1680
brings absolute monarchy.
• Denmark: constitutional
revolution of 1660 brings
absolute monarchy.
• England: Glorious Revolution of
1688 makes clear that the
monarch’s power is limited.
• Poland: Szlachta (nobles); Sejm
(national assembly); liberum veto
(from 1652).
Result of the Liberum
Veto: disappearance of
Poland 1772-95
Government: absolute
monarchies, limited in
practice
• Small bureaucracies; lack of
modern technology.
• France: Estates General 1614-15,
then none until 1789.
• Venality of office.
• Paulette (1604; Charles Paulet)
• Intendants.
Religion
• Christendom.
• Orthodoxy; schism in Russia
between reformers and Old
Believers.
• (Roman) Catholicism.
• Hussites (Bohemia; 1400s)
• Luther; Lutheranism (1517-) and
other forms of Protestantism; the
Reformation.
• The Counter-Reformation
(Catholic Reformation); the
Council of Trent 1545-63.
Religion: Catholicism
• Jesuits; (St) Ignatius Loyola.
• (St and Cardinal) Robert
Bellarmine (d. 1621.)
• Protestant heresy linked to
rebellion by Ferdinand II,
Maximilian of Bavaria, Richelieu,
Louis XIV.
• Matthew 16:18: “Thou art Peter,
and upon this rock I will build my
church, and the gates of Hell shall
not prevail against it”.
• Divine Providence. Bossuet.
Gallicanism.
Bellarmine, by Gian
Lorenzo Bernini, Rome
1622
Religion: Lutheranism and
other forms of
Protestantism
• Lutheranism; Zwinglianism;
Calvinism.
• Rejection of indulgences and
Purgatory. Justification by faith
alone (solifidianism); 2 not 7
sacraments (baptism; eucharist/
Lord’s Supper; holy communion);
pope has no power (perhaps is
Antichrist); Scripture alone
contains the rules of Christianity
(tradition unimportant); against
clerical celibacy and monasticism;
monastic lands can be
secularized; communion in both
kinds
• Consubstantiation replaces
transubstantiation; other
Protestants reject both.
• Peace of Augsburg 1555.
Religion: Calvinism
• John Calvin (d. 1564); Geneva.
• Theodore Beza (d. 1604).
• Predestination (compare with
Catholic Jansenists).
• Many Calvinists were
Presbyterians; millenarians.
• Calvinism spread in England,
France, the Dutch Republic, and
in central and eastern Europe. In
Germany the Electors of the
Palatinate and (from 1613) of
Brandenburg were Calvinists.
Theodore Beza
Religion: other Protestant
groups
• Anabaptists; Baptists.
• Quakers.
• Socinians; Fausto Sozzini; antitrinitarian; stress ethics not
dogma; rationalist.
• Erasmus (d. 1536) and
Erasmianism.
• Hugo Grotius (1583-1645)
• George Calixtus (1586-1656);
syncretism.
• The Tew Circle 1630s (influential
on Hobbes, Locke).
Hugo Grotius (1631)
Religion: splinter
movements
• Lutheranism: Pietism; Philipp
Jakob Spener (d. 1705).
• Catholicism:
• Quietism. Miguel de Molinos (d.
1697).
• Jansenism: Cornelius Jansen;
(Blaise Pascal);
ascetic, puritanical; stress human
sinfulness and divine
predestination.
Ideas
•
•
•
•
•
•
Scholasticism; Aristotle.
Humanism.
Cabala (Cabbala); Cabalism.
Hermeticism.
Millenarianism; John Napier.
Jean Bodin (d. 1596); political
science.
• Witchcraft; the witch-craze; key
factors: judicial use of torture;
cases decided by locals; areas of
heightened religious tension; only
about 15% of witches were men;
the Inquisition (Spain, Portugal,
Italy).
William Perkins (d. 1602)
on Witchcraft
Thirty Years War 1618-48:
Outline
• (1) Origins
• (2) The Bohemian Phase and the
Palatinate 1618-24
• (3) The Danish Phase 1625-9.
• (4) The Swedish Phase 1630-5.
• (5) The French (and Swedish)
Phase 1635-48.
• (6) The Peace of Westphalia 1648.
The Thirty Years War,
1618-48
• Linked wars: Spain vs. France
1635-59; Spain vs. Dutch, 15681609, 1621-48.
• Germany before the War:
• The Peace of Augsburg 1555;
cuius regio eius religio
• Catholicism; Lutheranism
• Calvinism; the Elector Palatine
(Palatinate); the Elector of
Brandenburg (from 1613)
The Thirty Years War:
origins
• Germany before the War:
• The “ecclesiastical reservation” in
the Peace of Augsburg: land
belonging to the Catholic church
after 1552 cannot be taken from
it.
• War over Cologne 1583-8;
Bavarian Wittelsbach family
controls Cologne thereafter.
• Imperial free cities; crisis at
Donauwörth 1606-8.
The Thirty Years War:
origins
• Donauwörth crisis: Protestants
walk out of the Imperial Diet
1608; the Elector Palatine
(Wittelsbach) founds the
Protestant Union.
• 1609: Maximilian of Bavaria
founds the Catholic League.
• 1610: Cleves/ Jülich succession
crisis.
• 1610: assassination of Henry IV of
France.
Maximilian the Great, Duke of Bavaria (1573/15971651). His sister married Ferdinand of Austria in
1600; he married their 25-year old daughter in
1635.
Thirty Years War: the
Bohemian Crisis 1618-20
• Rudolf II (Emperor 1576-1612)
• Matthias (Emperor 1612-19)
• Ferdinand II (Emperor 1619-37);
Styria; Graz.
• Letter of Majesty (Bohemia)
1609.
• Estates of Bohemia revolt 1618.
• Hradschin Palace/ Prague Castle
• The defenestration of Prague;
Martinitz and Slavata (also Philip
Fabricius von Hohenfall)
The Defenestration of
Prague, May 23 1618
Rudolf II, by Giuseppe
Arcimboldo, 1590-1.
Ferdinand II (1578/161937; here in 1614)
The Bohemian Crisis
1618-20
• Revolts in Bohemia, Austria, and
Hungary 1618-20.
• Bethlen Gábor (Gabriel Bethlen;
1580-1629; Prince of
Transylvania 1613-29).
• 1619: Estates of Bohemia elect
Frederick V (Elector Palatine) as
King in place of Habsburg
Ferdinand II.
• Frederick V married to Elizabeth,
daughter of British King James I.
• John George of Saxony.
Elizabeth Stuart (15961662): the Winter Queen
Bethlen Gábor
(1580/1613-29), Prince of
Transylvania
John George of Saxony,
1626
The Bohemian Crisis and
the Palatinate 1618-24
• 1620: battle of the White
•
•
•
•
•
Mountain near Prague; defeat of
the Winter King and Queen.
Tilly (Johann Tserclaes, Graf von
Tilly)
1620: Ambrogio (/Ambrosio)
Spinola invades the Lower
Palatinate (on the Rhine)
Ernst von Mansfeld; Christian of
Brunswick
1623: Ferdinand appoints
Maximilian of Bavaria as Elector
Palatine.
1624: Breakdown of English plans
for a “Spanish Match” between
Prince Charles and the Infanta
Maria Anna.
The Thirty Years War: the
Danish Phase 1625-9;
Wallenstein.
• Christian IV of Denmark (15771648; King 1588-1648); Duke of
Holstein; uncle of Charles I of
Britain.
• Spinola captures Breda 1625.
• English expedition to Cadiz, 1625.
• Lutheran Dukes of Mecklenburg;
Mansfeld; Bethlen Gábor.
• Wallenstein (Albrecht Wenzel
Eusebius von Waldstein/
Wallenstein; 1583-1634; Duke of
Friedland 1625; Duke of
Mecklenburg 1628).
The Surrender of Breda
1625; painted 1634-5 by
Diego Velázquez
Wallenstein in 1629
The Thirty Years War: the
Danish phase 1625-9
• Battle of Lutter 1626; Tilly
defeats Christian.
• Meanwhile Wallenstein fights
Mansfeld (d. 1626) and Bethlen
Gábor.
• 1627: Persians defeat Turks at
Baghdad; Bethlen Gábor backs
out of the war.
• 1627: Wallenstein conquers
Jutland.
• 1628: Wallenstein fails to capture
Stralsund.
• 1629: Wallenstein makes peace
with Denmark.
The Thirty Years War: the
Swedish Phase 1630-35.
• The Edict of Restitution (1629)
and the dismissal of Wallenstein
(1630).
• The succession crisis in Mantua
1628: war between France and
the Habsburgs 1629-31.
• The “Spanish Road”.
• Piet Hein captures the Spanish
treasure fleet 1628.
• Gustavus Adolphus (1594-1632;
King of Sweden 1611-32) invades
Germany 1630.
Piet Hein captures the Spanish silver
fleet in the Bay of Matanzas, Cuba, 1628
The Thirty Years War: the
Swedish Phase 1630-5.
• 1631: Treaty of Bärwalde
between Sweden and France.
• 1631: Tilly sacks Magdeburg (but
not Rothenburg; Der
Meistertrunk).
• 1631: Gustavus defeats Tilly at
•
•
•
•
Breitenfeld.
1632: allied to the Swedes, John
George of Saxony attacks
Bohemia and captures Prague.
1632: Gustavus attacks Bavaria
and captures Munich.
1632: Gustavus defeats Tilly at
the battle of the river Lech; Tilly
dies of wounds.
1632: Ferdinand II recalls
Wallenstein.
Gustavus Adolphus
Der Meistertrunk:
schedule and activities for
2011
The Thirty Years War: the Swedish
phase 1630-5 and the death of
•
•
•
•
•
•
Wallenstein (1634).
1632: Wallenstein fights Gustavus
at Lützen; death of Gustavus.
Christina (1626-89; Queen of
Sweden 1626-54).
Axel Oxenstierna (1583-1654).
League of Heilbronn 1633.
Death of Wallenstein 25 February
1634
Walter Butler; Walter Leslie; John
Gordon; Walter Devereux.
The Thirty Years War: the
French (and Swedish)
Phase 1635-48
• 1634: Matthias, Count Gallas
(1584-1645) defeats Swedes and
their allies at Nördlingen.
• 1635: Peace of Prague: Ferdinand
II modifies Edict of Restitution;
Saxony changes sides (again).
• 1635: France enters the war
directly.
• 1636: the year of Corbie.
• 1636: Swedes (under Johan
Banér) defeat Saxons at
Wittstock.
The Thirty Years War: the
French (and Swedish)
Phase 1635-48
• 1638: Bernard of Saxe-Weimar
(1604-39) captures the fortress of
Breisach on the Rhine; the French
take control of it on his death in
1639
• 1640: revolts against Spain of
Catalonia and Portugal
• Turenne; Condé; Torstensson.
• Battles: Breitenfeld 1642; Rocroi
1643; Lens 1648.
• (Arturo Pérez-Reverte, Alatriste
2006)
Lennart Torstensson
(1603-51) in 1648
Queen Christina,
Riksdaler of 1647
The Peace of Westphalia
1648
• Efforts to negotiate peace of
Pope Urban VIII 1636, and
of Ferdinand III (1608-57;
Emperor from 1637) in
1640.
• Two peace conferences, at
Münster (France), and
Osnabrück (Sweden) start in
1645 and end in 1648.
• War between Spain and the
Dutch ends with Dutch
independence.
• Sweden gets Western
Pomerania including Stettin;
also gets Bremen and makes
other gains in North
Germany (Brandenburg gets
East Pomerania)
Ferdinand III (1608/37-57)
The Peace of Westphalia
1648
• France gets most of Alsace, and
Breisach and some other strategic
fortresses.
• Sovereignty of German states is
recognized, and the powers of
the Empire weakened (unanimity
is required for the Diet to act).
• Palatinate: the title of Elector
Palatine, and the Lower
Palatinate (Heidelberg) restored
to Karl Ludwig, the son of the
Winter King and Queen.
• The Upper Palatinate stays with
Maximilian of Bavaria, who loses
the title of Elector Palatine, but
becomes Elector of Bavaria.
The Peace of Westphalia
1648: Religion
• Religion: Calvinism was now
recognized.
• Rulers could establish either
Catholicism or Lutheranism or
Calvinism as the public religion of
their lands.
• Rulers were to tolerate the
private practice of religions which
had been allowed in their lands in
1624.
• Rulers could expel (within 5
years) members of religious
groups that had not been
tolerated in their lands in 1624,
but could not take their property.
• Land taken from Protestants by
Catholics after 1624 was to be
restored.
The Peace of Westphalia
1648: Assessment
• The Peace of Westphalia made it
clear that the Dutch would be
independent from Spain, that the
Emperor would not have
sovereign power over Germany,
and that Protestantism would not
be wiped out in Germany.
• The Peace is sometimes seen as a
key turning point in the
secularization of politics and
international relations, when
realpolitik or raison d’état
replaced religious commitments;
this is debatable.
Consequences of the
Thirty Years War
• Germany suffered serious
population loss, and economic
dislocation.
• The losses varied greatly; in some
places population was hardly
affected, but in others it declined
sharply; in Pomerania it fell by
perhaps 50%; in the area around
Magdeburg by 90%; overall,
German population fell from
about 16 million to 12 million.
• The war stimulated efforts to
prevent similar disasters in the
future, by establishing
internationally agreed laws on
the grounds for war and on what
was legitimate in war.
Jacques Caillot, from The
Miseries of War, 1633
Hugo Grotius, De Jure
Belli ac Pacis
Scandinavia and Poland to
1660
• Swedish army under Torstensson
attacks Denmark 1643; war 16435; Halland conquered by Sweden.
• Charles X of Sweden (1654-60)
(married Hedvig Eleonora/
Holstein-Gottorp).
• John Casimir of Poland (1648-68).
• 1655: Swedes invade Poland
(Potop: the Deluge).
• Frederick III of Denmark (164870).
Scandinavia and Poland to
1660
• 1657: Brandenburg changes sides
and gains sovereignty of Prussia.
• 1658: Swedes besiege
Copenhagen and conquer Scania.
• 1660: Treaties of Copenhagen
and Oliva.
• (1667: Truce of Andrusovo:
Poland loses Eastern Ukraine –
including Kiev – to Russia)
Sweden and Denmark 1645
(Brömsebro): Sweden gains yellow areas,
and red area for 30 years
Sweden and Denmark 1658 (Roskilde) and
1660 (Copenhagen): Sweden gains yellow
and purple areas in 1658, but returns
purple area in 1660
The War between Spain
and France 1635-59
• Revolts of Catalonia and Portugal 1640.
• Portugal: battle of Villaviciosa 1665; Spain
recognizes Portugal as independent 1668.
• Catalonia: Louis XIII and XIV of France
become Dukes of Barcelona.
• France weakened by the Fronde 1648-52.
• 1652: Barcelona surrenders to Spain.
• 1655: England joins the war; capture of
Jamaica (1655) and Dunkirk (1658) from
Spain.
• Death of Oliver Cromwell 1658.
• Treaty of the Pyrenees 1659; Maria Teresa
and Louis marry 1660.
Maria Teresa (1638-83), by Velázquez, 1653; she
was the double cousin of Louis XIV, whom she
married in 1660
Spain: Outline
• (1) Government; (2) Society; (3)
The Economy; (4) Olivares; (5)
The Crisis of the 1640s.
• The Monarchs:
• Philip II (el Prudente; the
prudent); 1556-98.
• Philip III (el Piadoso; the pious);
1598-1621.
• Philip IV (el Grande; the great; el
Re Planeta; the planet king);
1621-65.
• Charles II (el Hechizado); 1665-
1700.
Spain in the Early
Seventeenth Century:
Government
• Vast resources and territory:
Spain, Portugal, Spanish
(Southern) Netherlands (and a
claim to the Northern provinces),
Sardinia, Sicily, Naples, Milan,
Franche-Comté (Besançon),
Charolais, Luxemburg, much of
Central and South America,
Philippines.
• But the vastness of the territories
creates problems of
communication and
administration
Spain: Government:
Disunity
• Disunity; different parts of Spain
insist on their own rights and
privileges (fueros).
• Spain divided into different states
with their own customs, laws,
and institutions, united only by
having the same monarch.
• The largest and richest state was
Castile, which controlled the
American territories.
• The kingdom of Aragon was
subdivided into Aragon proper,
Valencia, and Catalonia.
• Portugal taken over by Spain only
in 1580; Portuguese Empire
included Brazil and Goa.
Spain and Portugal in
1492
Spain: Government:
Taxation
• Each region was reluctant to pay
for expenses spent outside the
region.
• Castile got burdened with greater
taxes than other areas.
• Other regions thought this was
fair, because the American
Empire was Castile’s; trade went
through Cadiz and Seville.
• Castile wanted other regions to
pay their fair share in taxes.
Spain: Government:
Taxation in Castile
• Servicio ordinario y extraordinario
(tax voted by the Cortes).
• Alcabala (10% sales taxes; towns
often compounded; nobles often
acquired the right to it).
• Millones (tax on foodstuffs; voted
•
•
•
•
by the Cortes).
Customs duties; taxes on church
(including on sale of indulgences).
Quint: 20% levy on silver from
America (about the same as
alcabala in 1600; declined from
1620s)
To raise more cash, government
sold interest-bearing bonds –
juros
Weak finances limited military
possibilities; 1628: Piet Hein
A “Piece of 8” Reales,
1687, Potosí mint.
Spain: Government: the
Conciliar System.
• Philip II: the king governs in
person
• El Escorial.
• Council of State; Finance; War.
• Council of Castile; Aragon;
Portugal; Indies.
• Viceroys (Aragon, Navarre, Sicily,
Peru, New Spain, Catalonia,
Sardinia, Portugal).
• Consulta. “If death came from
Madrid, we would all be
immortal”.
• Audiencias (America). Letrados.
Philip III, 1578/1598-1621
• Became King at the age of 20.
• Lazy; pious; fond of high aristocracy.
• Married his 14-year old cousin
Margaret of Austria in 1599; she had 8
children in the next 12 years, and died
in childbirth in 1611.
Philip IV, 1605/1621-65
(by Velázquez; 1652-3)
• Became King at the age of 16.
• Interested in art collecting; court life;
religion; actresses; bull fights; horses.
• His legitimate son and heir Balthasar
Charles died of smallpox in 1646 (aged
16).
• He had another legitimate son in 1661
– Charles II.
Charles II, 1661/5-1700
• 2 of Charles’ 4 grandparents were also
his great-grandparents.
• Ferdinand I (d. 1564) was his direct
ancestor (great-great grandfather etc.)
eight times over.
• He had serious physical and emotional
problems.
• He married twice, but had no children.
• His death was long expected (and
hoped for by those who stood to
inherit).
Spain: Government: the
validos/ privados;
valimiento
• Government by the King in
person worked well under the
able workaholic Philip II.
• But under lazier or less
competent Kings it made sense to
leave decisions to a chief advisor
– a privado/ valido (who often
held few major offices).
• If things went wrong, this person
could be blamed, and the
monarchy survive unscathed.
• But the system linked the crown
to the privado’s faction, annoying
other nobles
• And the privado could be
incompetent
Francisco Gómez de
Sandoval, Duke of Lerma
(1553-1625) (by Rubens,
1603)
• A high nobleman, he became a
favorite of the young Philip III before
the latter became King in 1598,
• The King made Lerma his privado and
in 1599 gave him a dukedom.
• Lerma used his power to make himself
vastly rich.
• His enemies at court secured his fall in
1618; earlier that year he persuaded
the Pope to make him a Cardinal.
Later privados
• One of those who drove Lerma
from power was Olivares, who
became privado under Philip IV;
more on Olivares in a while.
• On Olivares’ fall in 1643, his
nephew Luis Méndez de Haro,
Marquis of Carpio (d. 1661),
succeeded him as privado.
• Mariana (or Maria Anna) of
Austria married her uncle Philip
IV when she was 14; she was
regent for Charles II 1665-77, and
appointed as privado first her
Austrian confessor Johann
Eberhard Nithard (to 1669) and
then the minor noble Fernando
de Valenzuela (1673-7).
• Philip IV’s illegitimate son John of
Austria took over in 1677, ending
the age of the privados.
Charles II and his Mother, Mariana
(or Maria Anna) of Austria (163496) (Milan 1666)
Spain: Government: the
Cortes of Castile
• The consent of the Cortes was
required if the King wanted new
taxes.
• The Cortes sometimes used its
power over taxation to criticize
royal policy.
• But it was a weak institution, and
after 1665 it ceased to be called.
• The nobles and clergy did not
send representatives to the
Cortes; 18 towns did
• The representatives got to vote
taxes for the whole of Castile, and
to say how they would be
distributed; their expenses were
paid by the government; and they
got a share of the taxes they
voted.
Spain: Society
• Nobles; grandees; títulos (Duke;
Marquis; Count; Viscount) (also
Baron in Catalonia); caballeros;
hidalgos.
• Clergy: 100-150,000 under Philip
IV (ten times as many as in
England).
• Students; Colegios Mayores
• Arbitristas
• Link between trade and low
status; Granada 1492; purity of
blood (limpieza de sangre); Jews;
Moors; Marranos; Moriscos;
Inquisition.
• Expulsion of the Moriscos 160914; 319,000 expelled; Valencia.
Expulsion of the Moriscos
1609
Spain: Economy
• Peasants: high taxation, and large
payments to noble landowners
encourage them to leave the land
and emigrate to America.
• Mesta: aristocratic organization
of sheep-owners, dominated by
grandees; merino sheep.
• But Spanish wool increasingly
uncompetitive with the New
Draperies of the Dutch and
English.
• Debasement of the coinage;
vellón.
• Agricultural prosperity in
Catalonia; Barcelona.
Olivares in 1635 (by
Velázquez)
Gaspar de Guzmán, Count
of Olivares, 1587-1645:
early career
• Olivares became Duke of San
Lúcar la Mayor, and was known as
the Conde-Duque (Count-Duke)
from then on.
• He was a younger son of the
Count of Olivares, who served as
Spanish ambassador to Rome,
and as Viceroy of Naples and
Sicily.
• Olivares’ father never quite made
it to the rank of Grandee.
• There was Jewish blood in the
family’s recent past.
Olivares: early career
• Since he was a younger son, he
was not expected to inherit the
family estates, and so would need
to earn a living.
• So he was sent to the University
of Salamanca, to be trained for a
career in the church.
• But when his elder brother died,
he became heir to the family
lands; he married and was sent to
court.
• In 1607 his father died and he
inherited the countship and
lands.
Olivares’ rise to power
• At court, he was attached to the
household of the heir to the
throne, who became Philip IV.
• Young Philip initially disliked
Olivares; the latter worked hard
to change that.
• When Philip IV became King in
1621, Olivares rose to power; by
1623 he was Philip’s chief
minister.
• Olivares was intelligent, verbose,
deeply religious, and selfdoubting; he was well aware of
Spain’s problems, and
determined to solve them.
Olivares’ plans for reform
• To make government more
efficient, he supplemented the
councils with juntas – to which he
appointed relatives and clients.
• They included the junta for
reformation (1623).
• It proposed cutting the size of
local government bureaucracy by
two thirds.
• It advocated reducing the number
of students and grammar schools.
• It proposed ending wasteful
spending by abolishing the ruff
and brothels, and discouraging
plays and novels.
A Ruff (on the Darnley
Portrait of Elizabeth I,
1575)
Olivares’ plans for reform
• He intended to increase royal
authority, and with this in mind
appointed officials from the
lesser rather than the higher
nobility.
• He set up juntas for economic
reform, intending to promote
trade and agriculture, and reverse
depopulation. He offered noble
status to large-scale traders.
• He expanded the navy.
• He wanted to share the cost of
government fairly across Spain,
and ultimately to unite the
different regions.
Olivares’ plans for reform
• As a first step towards unification,
he planned a Union of Arms
(1625) which would create a
single Spanish army financed by
all the regions in proportion to
their wealth.
• Many of his plans failed (though
the ruff fell out of fashion).
• Aragon resisted the Union of
Arms.
• It was hard to reduce the size of
the Castilian local bureaucracy as
many offices had been bought by
the office-holders, and the
government could not afford to
buy them back.
Olivares’ plans for reform
• Despite Olivares’ efforts, people
continued to think of clergy and
students as having high status,
and equated trade with low
status.
• To finance government, Olivares
resorted to debasing the coinage
by issuing vellón (base; billon)
coins; this annoyed the Cortes
and harmed the economy.
• But the main reason why Olivares
shelved his plans was that Spain
went to war again.
Olivares and foreign
policy
• In 1621 the Twelve Years Truce
between the Dutch Republic and
Spain expired.
• Some Spaniards thought the
Truce should be renewed; but
Olivares believed (rightly) that
Dutch wealth had expanded
greatly during the Truce, and he
hoped that Spain could extract
better terms from the Dutch,
even if it could not reconquer
them.
• The Austrian Habsburgs were
successful in the early years of
the Thirty Years War; it seemed
like a good idea for Spain to ally
with them.
Olivares: Spain at War.
• Spain had successes early in the
war; in 1625 Breda was captured,
and Bahia (in Brazil) was
recaptured; the Dutch were also
defeated at Puerto Rico.
• Olivares’ motives: self-defense or
world domination?
• Turning points: death of the Duke
of Mantua (1627) and Mantuan
succession crisis (1628-31); Duke
of Nevers.
• Piet Hein captures the treasure
fleet 1628.
1625: Admiral Fadrique Alvárez de Toledo leads
a Spanish and Portuguese force which
recaptures Bahia from the Dutch.
Olivares: Spain at War
• 1630s: Olivares tries to get more
financial and military resources
from outlying parts of Spain and
from Portugal.
• Unrest in Catalonia, Vizcaya 1632;
Portugal 1637; Olivares backs
down.
• 1638 fall of Breisach; 1639 Battle
of the Downs – destruction of a
Spanish fleet in the English
Channel.
• 1639-40: billeting of troops in
Catalonia.
Olivares 1640-3: Crisis
and Fall
• May 1640: Catalan Revolt begins;
later some Catalan nobles invite
in the French; the Revolt divides;
1648 peace with the Dutch
strengthens Spain, and the
Fronde weakens France; plague
strikes Catalonia ealry 1650s;
Philip IV promises easy terms and
Barcelona surrenders 1652.
• Portugal: 1630 Dutch capture
Pernambuco in Brazil; Spain fails
to recapture it 1640.
• Portuguese resent exclusion from
Spanish America, and high
taxation and use of Inquisition
against those merchants who do
trade there.
Coin of Louis XIII as Count
of Barcelona, 1642
Olivares: 1640-3: Crisis
and Fall
• Portuguese hope that if
they split from Spain,
Dutch will stop attacking
Brazil.
• Portuguese resent efforts
of Olivares’ to use their
resources in Dutch War.
• December 1640: Portugal
revolts; allies with France.
• 1643: Fall of Olivares; d.
1645.
Portugal becomes
independent
• 1640: John Duke of Braganza
becomes King John (João) IV of
Portugal.
• Dutch continue attacking
Portuguese possessions and
capture Luanda (Angola) 1641;
but Portugal recaptures it 1648,
and drives Dutch from Brazil
1654.
• Portugal deserted by French
1659, but allies with England
1661; they decisively defeat Spain
1665 (Villaviciosa), and Spain
recognizes Portugal’s
independence 1668.
France 1589-1643:
Outline
• (1) Henry IV (1553/89-1610) and
the end of the Religious Wars:
Nantes and Vervins.
• (2) The reforms of Sully.
• (3) The minority of Louis XIII
(1601/10-43) 1610-17: Marie de’
Medici and Concini.
• (4) Charles d’Albert, Duke of
Luynes (1617-21).
• (5) Armand-Jean du Plessis,
Cardinal and Duke of Richelieu:
(A) rise to power 1614-24; (B)
domestic policy; (C) foreign policy
and reason of state.
Henry IV and the End of
the Wars of Religion
• 1559: death of Henry II (Valois) of
France; he was succeeded in turn
by his three young and ineffective
sons.
• Religious civil wars in France from
1560s, between Catholics and
Protestant Huguenots.
• 1572: St. Bartholomew’s Day
massacres.
• 1584: Henry III’s brother and heir
died; the King was childless, so
his distant relative Henry
Bourbon, King of Navarre,
became heir.
Henry IV of France (and III
of Navarre); b. 1553; King
1589(/72)-1610
Pope Gregory XIII celebrates the killing of
Huguenots in the St Bartholomew’s Day
massacres of 1572
Henry IV and the End of
the Wars of Religion
• Henry of Navarre was a
Huguenot.
• Zealous Catholics claimed that a
heretic could not become King of
France; under Henry, Duke of
Guise, they formed the Holy
League (La Sainte Ligue) in 1585.
• The War of the Three Henries
resulted (1585-9): Henry III and
Henry of Navarre fought against
Henry of Guise and the League
• Paris revolted and drove Henry III
out, 1588.
Henry IV and the End of
the Wars of Religion
• Henry III invited Henry of Guise
and his brother the Cardinal of
Lorraine to a conference; when
they arrived his servants
murdered them.
• In 1589 a Dominican friar, Jacques
Clément, murdered Henry III;
Henry of Navarre claimed to be
Henry IV.
• Philip II of Spain aided the
League, and tried to put his
daughter Isabella on the French
throne; her mother had been
Elisabeth Valois, Henry III’s sister.
Henry IV and the End of
the Wars of Religion
• Many French people strongly
opposed having a female
monarch, believing that ancient
Salic Law prohibited this.
• Many opposed Spanish
intervention in their affairs.
• Henry IV gained support from the
politiques, a group which put
political stability and temporal
welfare ahead of religious
considerations.
• In 1593, Henry IV converted to
Catholicism.
Henry IV and the End of
the Wars of Religion
• “Paris is well worth a mass”
(“Paris vaut bien une messe”):
Paris surrenders to Henry IV.
• Aristocratic members of the
League grew worried about the
social radicalism of some of its
members.
• By force and bribery, Henry IV got
the leaders of the League to
surrender.
• The wars ended in 1598 when
Spain and France made the Peace
of Vervins.
Henry IV: the Edict of
Nantes 1598
• At the end of the religious wars,
Henry IV granted the Huguenots
(limited) religious toleration in
the Edict of Nantes (1598)
• Huguenot nobles could hold
Protestant services in their own
households.
• Huguenots could have public
services in a limited number of
towns, but not in Paris.
• Huguenot ministers were to be
paid by the state.
Manuscript of the Edict of
Nantes, April 13, 1598
Henry IV: the Edict of
Nantes 1598
• Huguenots were to have full civil
rights and to be eligible for all
jobs in state service.
• Huguenots were granted control
of some fortified, garrisoned
towns, such as La Rochelle.
• To enforce the Edict, provincial
courts were set up with equal
numbers of Protestant and
Catholic members.
• But In the highest court – the
Parlement of Paris – Catholics
had a majority (of 10-6, and later
10-1).
Henry IV: religious
tensions after the Edict.
• Though the Edict theoretically
gave Huguenots full rights, in
practice governments favored
Catholics, and Huguenot rights
were eroded.
• Some Catholics thought the Edict
was wrong, since it was sinful to
tolerate heresy; some believed it
was foolish to have an armed
religious minority in the country.
• Assassination attempts by
Catholic fanatics against Henry
continued after he converted to
Catholicism.
• After one of these, in 1595, the
Jesuits (many of whom had sided
with the League) were exiled
from Paris.
Henry IV: religious
tensions after the Edict.
• In 1604 the Jesuits were
readmitted to Paris; one of them
– Pierre Coton – became the
King’s confessor.
• Many Jesuits were
ultramontanes.
• Many members of the Parlement
of Paris were Gallicans.
• In 1610 Henry IV was
assassinated by a Catholic fanatic,
François Ravaillac.
• There were suspicions that
Ravaillac was influenced by
Jesuits; the Parlement burned
Juan de Mariana’s De Rege et
regis institutione (1599), and took
further action against
ultramontane ideas in the
following years.
Sully and domestic policy
• One of Henry’s leading ministers
was the Huguenot Maximilien de
Béthune, Duke of Sully (15601641).
• Henry and Sully re-established
order and economic prosperity;
central to this was the simple fact
that peace had been restored.
• Sully became superintendent of
finances, grand commissioner of
highways and public works, and
grand master of the artillery.
A statue of Sully by
Gabriel-Vital Dubray,
c.1853; in the Louvre
Sully and domestic policy
• Sully rooted out financial
corruption by administrators
(apart from himself).
• The taille (tax on land or personal
property) fell slightly but the
gabelle (tax on salt) rose.
• Sully built up a large surplus of
revenue, enabling Henry to pay of
debts to foreign powers.
• In the case of the Grand Duke of
Tuscany, Henry got out of paying
his debts by marrying the Grand
Duke’s daughter, Marie de’
Medici.
Marie de’ Medici (15751642) married Henri IV in
1600; here she is c.1606
In 1601, Marie gave birth to a son,
who became Louis XIII in 1610; here
they are in 1603
Marie acted as Regent while Louis
was a boy; this dates from 1614.
In 1608 she gave birth to
another son, Gaston,
Duke of Orléans (1608-60)
Henrietta Maria (1609-69), the daughter
of Henry IV and Marie, married Charles I
of England in 1625
Sully and domestic policy
• Sully improved internal
communications, and planned a
network of canals, and improving
roads.
• Sully encouraged agricultural
improvement and the draining of
marshes.
• Henry supposedly said that he
wanted every French family to
have a “chicken in the pot” (poule
au pot).
• Henry encouraged Sully to set up
silk factories and plant mulberry
trees.
Henry IV: rebellions and
foreign affairs
• A conspiracy fomented by
France’s neighbor Savoy was
suppressed in 1602; the chief
conspirators were the Huguenot
Henry de la Tour d’Auvergne,
Duke of Bouillon, and the
Catholic Charles de Gontaut,
Duke of Biron; Bouillon fled and
was later pardoned; Biron was
beheaded.
• Henry fought a brief campaign in
Savoy, 1600-1.
• Henry was instrumental in
resolving the affair of the
Venetian Interdict in 1606-7,
arguably averting a Europeanwide war.
Henry IV: foreign affairs
• Henry became infatuated with
Charlotte Marguerite de
Montmorency, the fifteen-year
old wife of his cousin Henry de
Bourbon, Prince of Condé; the
Prince fled with her to the
Spanish Netherlands.
• Henry made plans for war with
the Habsburgs; perhaps he
intended to pressure them into
returning Charlotte; or maybe his
main intention was to intervene
in the Cleves/ Jülich succession
crisis.
• Before he could take military
action, he was stabbed to death
by Ravaillac.
Ravaillac assassinates
Henry IV, May 14 1610
Memorial, at the place
where Ravaillac
assassinated Henry
Louis XIII (1610-43):
Minority 1610-17
• Marie de’ Medici: Regent to 1614
(effectively to 1617).
• Marie: greedy; pious; venerates
the Virgin Mary; pro-Habsburg
(her mother was the daughter of
the Emperor Ferdinand I); dévot.
• She confirmed the Edict of
Nantes.
• The high nobility, including
Condé, resented her power, and
protested that her regime was
corrupt.
• They pressured her into calling
the Estates-General in 1614.
Louis XIII (1610-43):
Minority 1610-17
• The Estates-General achieved
little; Marie dissolved it in 1615.
• In 1616 she had Condé arrested
and removed some of his main
allies from office.
• She ruled with her greedy Italian
favorites Concino Concini and
Leonora Dori Galigaï.
• In 1616 Marie and Concini
brought in to their
administration, as secretary of
state, Richelieu.
Concino Concini (15751617), Marquis d’Ancre
and Marshal of France
Leonora Dori Galigaï (1568-1617); Ladyin-waiting and favorite of Marie de’
Medici
Louis and Luynes, 161721
• Louis XIII took power for himself
and his favorite Charles d’Albert,
lord (Duke 1619) of Luynes.
• Louis was pious, with a high
sense of duty; he liked outdoor
sports, and especially hunting
(most of all with falcons or
vultures); he was suspicious of
intellectuals.
• He befriended aristocrats with
similar interests, especially
Luynes, whom he made Grand
Falconer of France in 1616.
• Luynes organized a coup against
Marie in 1617; Concini was
ambushed, assassinated, and torn
apart.
The execution of Leonora
Dori Galigaï, 1617
Louis XIII in the early
1620s
Charles d’Albert, Duke of
Luynes, 1578-1621
Louis and Luynes, 161721
• Leonora Dori Galigaï was
convicted of bewitching Marie,
and of Judaizing; she was
beheaded and then burned at the
stake.
• Marie soon recovered power as
one of the King’s advisors.
• Marie, Louis, and Luynes and
Louis agreed that the Huguenots
held too much military power.
• Béarn in the Pyrenees was in the
Kingdom of Navarre, and so
theoretically independent of
France.
Louis and Luynes, 161721
• Louis and Luynes used force to
end the independence of Béarn,
and to promote Catholicism
there.
• Some Protestant nobles
elsewhere in France resented
these actions, and openly resisted
the King.
• 1621: while he was campaigning
against them, Luynes caught a
fever and died, leaving Louis
without a chief minister.
The Rise of Richelieu
• Eventually (by 1624) Richelieu
became Louis’ leading advisor.
• Richelieu was born in 1585. He
was Armand-Jean du Plessis; his
father was lord (seigneur) de
Richelieu; Richelieu is in Poitou,
west central France.
• Richelieu was the fourth of five
children (and the third son).
• His father died in 1590, when he
was five.
The Rise of Richelieu
• Richelieu’s father had been a
supporter of Henry III (and later
of Henry IV).
• Henry III rewarded the family by
giving it the right to appoint the
Bishop of Luçon; it became the
family bishopric.
• Richelieu was not in line to
inherit lands or the title; the heir
was his eldest brother Henry.
• The next brother was Alphonse,
who was intended for the
bishopric.
The Rise of Richelieu
• Richelieu was trained to be a
soldier; he attended the
University of Paris, and then a
school for nobles which taught
courtly manners and fencing;
Richelieu retained military
interests throughout life.
• Brother Alphonse (intended for
the bishopric) got religion to such
an extent that he became a
monk. Richelieu retrained for the
bishopric, studying theology.
The Rise of Richelieu
• Since he was under the canonical
age (26) to be a bishop, Richelieu
went to Rome to plead for a
dispensation from the pope in
1606.
• His intelligence, quick wits, and
abilities as a speaker, greatly
impressed the pope, who granted
the dispensation.
• In 1608 Richelieu took up the job
as bishop.
• He was a hard-working,
committed, Counter-Reformation
bishop, who looked after the
spiritual interests of his diocese,
and wrote against Protestantism.
Richelieu’s Principaux Points de la Foy
(1618 Paris reprint of a book published
at Poitiers in 1617)
The Rise of Richelieu
• In 1614 the clergy of Poitou
elected as one of their two
representatives in the EstatesGeneral.
• In Paris for the Estates-General,
he met and cultivated Concino
and Marie, and was appointed
secretary of state in 1616.
• When Concino fell, Richelieu was
driven out of office.
• 1619: Richelieu’s brother Henry
died in a duel; Richelieu inherited
the title.
• When Marie de’ Medici returned
to favor, Richelieu did so too.
In 1615 Louis XIII married Anne of
Austria (1601-66) daughter of Philip III of
Spain; this portrait, by Rubens, dates
from the early 1620s
Richelieu gains power
• Louis XIII was suspicious of
Richelieu, and at first saw him as
his mother’s servant.
• But at Marie’s request he got to
pope to appoint Richelieu a
Cardinal in 1622.
• 1624: Richelieu became a
member of the King’s main
advisory council – the Conseil des
Affaires – and then its head.
• He began to diverge politically
from Marie.
Richelieu c. 1637
Richelieu consolidates
power 1624-30
• Marie supported the dévots, who
wanted good relations with the
Habsburg powers.
• The dévots included many
reforming Catholics who were
suspicious of the military power
of the Huguenots.
• Leaders of the dévots included
Michel de Marillac (keeper of the
seals) and Gaston d’Orléans (heir
to the throne until 1638, when
Anne of Austria gave birth to
Louis XIV)
Richelieu consolidates
power 1624-30
• Marillac favored internal reforms
to build up the economy; Code
Michaud 1629.
• Richelieu shared many of
Marillac’s views on the
importance of internal reform,
and like the dévots he thought
that the Huguenots should be
deprived of military power.
• But Richelieu supported the bons
français who argued that France’s
political interests required war
against the Habsburgs, and who
argued that the Habsburgs acted
through self-interest and
ambition for power, and used
religion as a pretext.
Richelieu consolidates
power 1624-30
• In 1627-8 the Huguenots revolted
at La Rochelle; bons français and
dévots agreed that the the Revolt
had to be suppressed.
• La Rochelle was besieged; it
surrendered on October 28,
1628; the Peace of Alais (1629)
ended the military power of the
Huguenots.
• In 1628, the Mantuan Succession
Crisis raised the question of
whether France should intervene
militarily against the Habsburgs in
Italy.
Louis XIII and Richelieu at
the Siege of La Rochelle,
1628
Richelieu at the siege of
La Rochelle, by Henri
Motte, 1881
Richelieu consolidates
power 1624-30
• Richelieu persuaded Louis to lead
an army into Italy in 1629.
• At court on 10 November 1630,
Marie threw a tantrum,
demanding that Louis dismiss
Richelieu; Louis appeared to give
in, but the next day he ordered
Richelieu to remain in office;
Marillac was imprisoned; the Day
of the Dupes.
• 1631: Richelieu was made a
Duke; Marie went into exile in the
Spanish Netherlands.
Richelieu: Medal of 1631,
by Jean Warin
Richelieu: Domestic Policy
• Outline: (1) Nobles; (2)
Representative Assemblies; (3)
Intendants; (4) The Economy.
• Plots and Revolts by Nobles:
• 1626: the Count of Chalais (Henri
de Talleyrand-Périgord) plotted
with Gaston d’Orléans and was
executed.
• 1632: Revolt of Languedoc under
Henry, Duke of Montmorency,
supported by Gaston d’Orléans.
• 1641: Revolt of Louis de Bourbon,
Count of Soissons (a member of
the royal family).
• 1642: Execution of Henri Coiffier
de Ruzé d’Effiat, Marquis of StMars.
Louis de Bourbon, Count
of Soissons (1604-41), in
1640
Henri de Coiffier de Ruzé
d’Effiat, Marquis of CinqMars, 1620-42
Richelieu: Domestic Policy
• Nobles; the Problem of Dueling:
• 1626: an edict institutes the
death penalty for dueling; it was
flagrantly flouted by aristocrats
including François de
Montmorency-Bouteville; so
Richelieu and Louis enforced the
edict by having MontmorencyBouteville executed.
• Assemblies: Estates-General
1614-15 (not again until 1789);
Assembly of Notables 1627 (not
again until 1787).
Montmorency-Bouteville (1600-27), the
champion duelist of his generation,
dueled once too often in 1627
• 1627: François de MontmorencyBouteville, Duke of Luxembourg,
fought a duel in Paris (he had fought
21 previous duels); his second, the
Count of Chapelles, killed his
opponent’s second (Bussy d’Amboise)
Richelieu: Domestic Policy
• Assemblies : Provincial Estates:
suspended in Dauphiné 1628;
Normandy 1635.
• Parlement of Paris; lit-de-justice;
Chambre de l’Arsenal 1631; 1641
edict limits Parlement’s right of
remonstrance.
• Intendants. Venality of office.
• Economy: Navy; Plans for staterun trading companies; 1627
Compagnie de la Nouvelle France
(Canada); 1630 national postage
and stage-coach service; 1635
Académie française.
Richelieu: Foreign policy
and reason of state
• Reason of state; ragione di stato;
Machiavelli; Botero; Cornelius
•
•
•
•
Jansen, Mars Gallicus 1635.
War drastically increases
expenditure and taxation; before
1632, royal income was always
below 50,000 livres a year; later
in the 1630s it rose to 200,000.
Revolts: Languedoc 1632;
Normandy 1639.
What was the purpose of the
war?
Breisach. Pinerolo. Alsace.
(Cornelius Jansen,) Mars
Gallicus, 1639
• Typically of highly controversial books,
this edition of Mars Gallicus has a false
author’s name – Alexander Patrick of
Armagh – and no printer’s name or
place of publication; sometimes the
date was also falsified in such works.
A Medal of 1638, commemorating the
capture of Breisach by Bernard of SaxeWeimar; it went to France on his death
in 1639
Breisach’s strategic
location on the Rhine
The Tomb of Richelieu, in
the Sorbonne, 1694
The Richelieu medal gold, given by the modern
Sorbonne (University of Paris 1, PanthéonSorbonne) for outstanding contributions to
learning and the University.
1000 Franc banknote of
1957 (revalued at 10
Francs in 1960)
Christoph Waltz as
Richelieu, 2011
The Dutch Republic to
1650: Outline
• (1) Society and Economy; (2)
Government;
(3) Religious and
Intellectual History;
(4) Narrative.
• The Heads of the Orange Family: (1)
Maurice of Nassau (Maurits) 15851625; (2) Frederick Henry (halfbrother of Maurice; both were sons of
William of Orange, d. 1584) 1625-47
(there was also an older Catholic halfbrother who was Prince of Orange
until his death in 1618; he was
brought up in Spain);
(3) William II
1647-50 (son of Frederick Henry).
Maurice of Nassau
(1567/85-1625)
Frederick Henry
(1584/1625-47; Maurice’s
half-brother)
William II (1626/47-50)
Johannes (/ Jan) Vermeer
(1632-75), View of Delft
(c. 1660-1)
Vermeer, Girl with a Pearl
Earring,
(c. 1665).
The Dutch Republic:
Society and Economy
• Seven Provinces: Holland; Zeeland;
Utrecht; Friesland; Groningen;
Gelderland; Overijssel.
• The Generality Lands.
• Efficient agriculture; crop rotation;
high yields.
• Small; urbanized; tolerant; seagoing;
fishers (especially of herring, often in
English waters; Grotius, Selden, and
the freedom of the seas).
• Sailors and shipbuilders.
• Skilled craftsmen immigrated from
Southern Netherlands in the wars.
The Dutch Republic:
Society and Economy
• Innovation in shipping: the fluyt or
fluytschip.
• Shipbuilding factories; pre-cut lumber;
wind-powered sawmills (1596).
• 1590s: Philip II closed Iberian ports to
Dutch; so they started to explore and
trade globally.
• 1598-1601: Olivier van der Noort sails
round the world.
• 1602: East India Company (VOC:
Vereenigde Oostindische Compagnie).
• 1621: West India Company.
Fluyts c. 1647:
inexpensive ships with
large storage capacity
The Dutch Republic:
Society and Economy
• Dutch build fleets for French,
Danes and Swedes.
• Shortage of land; so wealthy
invest in insurance and banking;
financial expertise of Amsterdam
banks encourages foreign
deposits.
• City council (vroedschap);
regents; city militias; mob.
A Dutch Leeuwendaalder (Dordrecht 1576); this
was a major international trade coin
throughout the seventeenth century;
(Joachims)thal – thaler – daalder – dollar.
Dutch Government
• 7 self-governing Provinces; towns
largely self-governing; but military
affairs, foreign policy, and (sometimes)
religion decided by the Provinces
together.
• Provinces had representative
assemblies = States; States of Holland
met at the Hague and represented 18
towns (with one vote each); the
nobility had only one vote.
• Amsterdam paid about a quarter of
the taxes of the whole Republic, and
had a large say in its affairs.
Dutch Government
• Holland: head of civil
administration was Advocate (to
1618) and then Pensionary.
• The States General (meeting daily
from 1593, usually at the Hague;
unanimity was required on
important matters; it voted taxes
for military purposes, giving each
Province a quota.
• Decentralization; lack of
uniformity.
Dutch Government
• Stadholder (lieutenant; deputy).
• Orange family; head of the family was
Stadholder of Holland and most of the
other Provinces, and Captain-General.
• The Captain-General’s power grew in war;
so he often favored an aggressive foreign
policy.
• Calvinist clergy tended to support
aggression (against foreign Catholic
powers).
• The merchants of Holland tended to
oppose it; the Captain-General often
supported the other Provinces against
Holland, and the Calvinist clergy against
total toleration.
Dutch Religious and
Intellectual History
• A reason for the Revolt against Spain
was to oppose religious persecution.
• Erasmian tradition of tolerance; Grotius.
• 1573 William the Silent (Prince of
Orange) became Calvinist.
• Calvinism established as state religion;
clergy receive public funding.
• But local lay authorities (e.g. regents of
Holland) want to restrict power of
Calvinist clergy and tolerate other
groups.
Dutch Religious and
Intellectual History
• In practice, non-Calvinists enjoyed a large
measure of toleration, especially in towns,
where the lay authorities protected them.
• Catholics (a third of population 1650);
Mennonites; Jews (got right of public
worship 1597).
• Dutch witches: last execution 1595; last trial
(acquittal) 1610.
• Tolerance (and high salaries in universities –
e.g. Leiden) attracted important intellectuals.
• Descartes; Spinoza; Locke (Epistola de
Tolerantia 1689).
• Publishing. Elzevir family.
Dutch Religious and
Intellectual History
• Religious and intellectual
disputes:
• In the later part of the century,
between Calvinists and
Cartesians.
• In the early years of the century,
between Arminians and
Calvinists/ Gomarists.
• Jacobus Arminius (Jakob
Hermanszoon, 1560-1609);
Franciscus Gomarus (1563-1641).
• Antinomianism.
Jacobus Arminius (Jakob
Hermanszoon, 15601609)
Franciscus Gomarus
(1563-1641)
Gomarist/ Calvinist
Theology of Grace: TULIP
•
•
•
•
Total Depravity.
Unconditional Election.
Limited Atonement.
Irresistible Grace.
• Perseverance of the Saints.
• (nothing to do with the great
Tulip Bubble, which burst in
1637).
Dutch History: Narrative
• Jan van Oldenbarnevelt; Maurice
of Nassau.
• 1609: Twelve Years Truce.
• 1610: Remonstrance;
Remonstrants; Arminians; Simon
Episcopius; Johan Uytenbogaert.
• Counter- (/ Contra-)
Remonstrants.
• 1618-19: Synod of Dort
(Dordrecht).
• 1619: execution of
Oldenbarnevelt.
• Grotius imprisoned in Loevestein
Castle (to 1621).
The Synod of Dort
(Dordrecht) 1618-19
Dutch History: Narrative
• 1621: Renewal of War with Spain.
• Arminians; Academy at
Amsterdam 1632; Philip van
Limborch.
• 1625: loss of Breda; succession of
Frederick Henry; recapature of ‘sHertogenbosch 1629;
• Maastricht 1632; Breda 1637
(but not Antwerp).
• Alliance with France 1635.
Dutch History: Narrative
• 1641: marriage alliance with
England links Orange and Stuart
families; 14-year old Prince
William marries 9-year old
Princess Mary.
• 1647: William II (now 20)
succeeds Frederick Henry.
• 1648 peace with Spain; question
of whether to disband army, and
of religion in Generality lands.
• 1650: William’s coup against
Holland; he dies of smallpox;
William III born.
• 1653-72: Johan de Witt
Pensionary; stadholderless
period.
England before the Civil
War, 1600-42
• Elizabeth I, 1558-1603: divisions
on religious questions; puritans
and papists; growth of the House
of Commons; Spanish Armada
1588; Ireland and the Nine Years
War 1594-1603.
• James I, 1603-25: divisions on
constitutional and religious
issues; Divine Right of Kings;
foreign policy and the Spanish
Match; Buckingham.
• Charles I, 1625-49: Arminianism;
constitutional issues; the
Personal Rule 1629-40; the
Scottish troubles 1637-41; the
Irish Revolt 1641.
William II and Maria
Henrietta Stuart, 1641; by
Anthony Van Dyck
England before the Civil
War, 1600-42
• Elizabeth I, 1558-1603.
• The Elizabethan Reformation:
1559 Acts of Supremacy and
Uniformity.
• The Royal Supremacy: personal or
parliamentary?
• Puritans (ceremonies and
vestments); Presbyterians;
Separatists.
• Catholics (papists; recusants);
seculars and regulars; Jesuits
(from 1580).
Elizabeth I (1533/581603): the Rainbow
Portrait (c.1600-2)
England before the Civil
War, 1600-42
• Elizabeth I, 1558-1603:
• The Spanish Armada 1588.
• Growth of the House of
Commons.
• The Nine Years’ War (1594-1603)
and the conquest of Ireland.
• Fiscal conservatism; sale of royal
land.
• James I, 1603-25.
• The Stuarts - a new and foreign
dynasty; Great Britain.
• Character; the Divine Right of
Kings; extravagance.
England before the Civil
War, 1600-42
•
•
•
•
James I, 1603-25:
Ulster.
Tensions with parliament.
The Union; Robert Cecil
(Salisbury) and impositions; the
Great Contract (1610);
parliaments – 1604-10; the
Addled Parliament 1614; Howard
family. George Abbot.
• Religion: Catholics – Gunpowder
Plot 1605; Guy Fawkes. Puritans –
Hampton Court Conference 1604.
James VI and I
(1566/1567/1603-25), c.
1606
Ulster Plantation 1611
The Gunpowder Plotters
(including Guy – or Guido
– Fawkes)
England before the Civil
War, 1600-42
• James I, 1603-25:
• Economic crisis: Alderman
Cockayne’s project 1614; Thirty
Years War.
• Sir Edward Coke (sacked 1616).
• Buckingham (George Villiers).
• Foreign Policy: the Spanish
Match; Frederick and the
Palatinate.
• 1621 Parliament: monopolies;
impeachment (Bacon); foreign
policy; Protestation of the
Commons.
George Villiers, Duke of
Buckingham (1592-1628)
England before the Civil
War, 1600-42
• James I, 1603-25:
• 1623: Jack and Tom Smith go to
Spain.
• 1624: Parliament calls for war
•
•
•
•
•
with Spain.
1625: death of James.
Charles I, 1625-49:
Character; Arminianism.
1625: Parliament: impositions
and tonnage and poundage.
1625: the Cadiz expedition.
England before the Civil
War, 1600-42
• Charles I, 1625-49:
• 1626: attempted impeachment of
Buckingham.
• 1626-7: war with France as well
as Spain; Forced Loan;
imprisonment of refusers,
without cause shown; Five
Knights’ Case (1627; habeas
corpus).
• 1628: Petition of Right.
Assassination of Buckingham.
• 1629: the three resolutions;
Arminianism and tonnage and
poundage.
England before the Civil
War, 1600-42
• Charles I, 1625-49:
• The Personal Rule 1629-40 (/
Eleven Years’ Tyranny).
• William Laud; Thomas
Wentworth (Earl of Strafford);
“thorough”. Star Chamber; High
Commission; new ceremonies;
the “beauty of holiness”. Ship
Money.
• Persecution of puritans; Burton;
Bastwick; Prynne (1637).
Charles I, Henrietta
Maria, and Princes
Charles and James, by Van
Dyck, 1633
England before the Civil
War, 1600-42
• Charles I, 1625-49:
• 1637: the Scottish Prayer
Book.
• 1638: the Scottish National
Covenant.
• 1639-40: the Bishops’ Wars.
• 1640: April-May: the Short
Parliament.
• 1640: the Scots invade
England.
England before the Civil
War, 1600-42
• 1640: November 3: the Long
Parliament (to 1648/1660).
• 1641-2: divisions on social and
religious issues; attainder of
Strafford (May 1641); reforming
legislation; bishops; the mob;
formation of parties (royalist and
parliamentarian; Pym; St John;
Hyde; Falkland).
• 1641 October: Irish Revolt.
• 1642: outbreak of Civil War.
Protestant English
depictions of the Irish
Revolt, 1641
Russia to 1682
• Outline:
• Russia and Poland contemporary
•
•
•
•
•
views.
Feodor I (1584-98) and Boris
Godunov (1598-1605): nobles,
serfs, and the patriarchate.
The Time of Troubles 1598-1613;
Feodor II (1605); Vasili IV Shuisky
1606-10.
Michael Romanov 1613-45.
Alexis 1645-76: rebellions;
Ukraine; Nikon and the Schism.
Feodor III 1676-82.
Russia: Feodor I and Boris
Godunov
• Ivan IV, the Terrible (ruled 155384); boyars.
• Feodor I (1557/84-98): simple,
saintly, feeble; 1580 married
Irina, sister of
• Boris Godunov (1551/98-1605),
who ruled for Feodor.
• Tsar = Caesar. Orthodox church;
Constantinople.
• 1589: Patriarchate of Moscow.
• Pomestie (estate of a service
noble); pomeshchiki (service
nobles).
Russia: Feodor I and Boris
Godunov
• Serfs; state peasants in North;
•
•
•
•
•
private serfs in South, tied to
land, and taxable; largely
rightless.
Slaves.
Cossacks.
Mestnichestvo system (abolished
1682).
The succession: death of Feodor’s
half-brother Dmitri 1591 (not yet
9) in odd circumstances.
1598: Godunov succeeds.
The Time of Troubles
1598-1613
• 1601-3: bad harvests, seen as
judgment of God against Boris
Godunov.
• Appearance of the first false
Dmitri (Gregory Otrepiev? Or the
real Dmitri?); he left Russia for
Poland, gained some Polish
support, and married the Polish
noblewoman Marina Mniszech.
• 1604 Dmitri leads a Polish and
Cossack army into Russia.
Boris Godunov
(c.1551/1598-1605)
The Time of Troubles
1598-1613
• 1605: death of Godunov; murder
in Moscow of his son Feodor II;
with boyar support, Dmitri I
enters Moscow, but soon makes
enemies; 1606 boyars kill him,
and make one of themselves tsar:
• 1606-10: Vasili IV Shuisky; but his
power was soon challenged by
widespread unrest and in
• 1607 a second false Dmitri
appeared; identity unknown (the
first false Dmitri’s associate
Mikhail Molchanov pretended to
be Dmitri for a while but gave up
in 1606); he (re-)married Marina
Mniszech.
The Time of Troubles
1598-1613
• 1608-10: supported by Poles,
Cossacks, and opponents of the
boyars, he defeated Shuisky, and
threatened Moscow; in 1610 he
was murdered by a follower.
• 1610: the boyars deposed
Shuisky, and tried to rule through
their own duma.
• 1610-13: Sigismund III of Poland
invaded Russia and took Moscow;
the Swedes invaded and took
Novgorod (and briefly ran their
own – third – false Dmitri).
Russia in the Time of
Troubles
The Time of Troubles
1598-1613
• Invasion by Catholic Poles and
Lutheran Swedes helped to unite
the Russians under leaders
including the butcher/ trader
Kuzma Minin.
• 1612: Russians recaptured
Moscow.
• 1613: a zemskii sobor (land
assembly) met and elected as tsar
the 16 year-old Michael
Romanov.
• 1619: Michael’s father released
from captivity in Poland; this was
Filaret (/ Philaret; Feodor Nikitich
Romanov); as Patriarch, Filaret
ruled jointly with Michael until
Filaret died in 1633.
Nicholas II, 1913 Ruble
commemorating 300 years of the
Romanov dynasty
Michael and Alexis
• Michael 1596/ 1613-45:
• 1637: Cossacks captured Azov; in
1642 they offered it to Michael in
return for military aid against the
Turks; after consulting a zemskii
sobor Michael declined.
• Alexis 1629/ 1645-76:
• Rebellions: 1648 Moscow,
protesting against boyar favorites;
1649 law code (serfdom the
default status for peasants).
• Debasement of the coinage
fueled economic problems;
together with the worsening
position of peasants, these
helped cause the rebellion of
Stenka Razin 1670-1.
Tsar Alexis (Alexei)
1629/45-1676
Alexis and the Ukraine
• Alexis debased the coinage to
help pay for war.
• Ukraine under Poland, but in
practice largely controlled by selfgoverning, egalitarian, Orthodox,
Cossack communities.
• Poles Catholicize through Uniate
Church (1596) and try to spread
serfdom.
• 1648: outbreak of revolt of
Bogdan Khmelnitsky (Bohdan
Chmielnicki; d. 1657).
• 1654: Russia intervenes; gains
East Ukraine (including Kiev).
• 1667: Treaty of Andrusovo.
Russian gains from
Poland, including Kiev
and Smolensk
Alexis: Nikon and the
Schism
• Nikon (1605-81): from a peasant
family; became a cleric and
monk, and in 1652 Patriarch of
Moscow.
• Nikon’s high views of the
Patriarch’s powers.
• The reforms: changes in
ceremonies.
• 1666-7: church council deposes
Nikon; accepts his reforms.
• Old Believers; opposition to
westernization/ modernization.
Avvakum burned 1682.
The Patriarch Nikon
c. 1660-5:
His signature and titles:
After Alexis
• Feodor III (1676-82): succeeds at
14; dead at 20; abolition of
mestnichestvo system 1682.
• 1682: disputed succession: Ivan V
(b. 1666; supported by sister
Sophia) and Ivan’s half-brother
Peter I (b. 1672; supported by his
mother Natalya). Ivan and Peter
shared power.
• 1689: Sophia plotted with the
streltsy (elite city guards) to
obtain full power; the plot
backfired; she became a nun.
• 1694: death of Natalya; 1696
death of Ivan.
Poland-Lithuania: Outline
• Society: a paradise for nobles.
• Government and religion: Sejm;
pacta conventa; Golden
Freedom; confederation; Rokosz.
• Narrative: Sigismund III 1566/ 871632; Władysław IV 1595/ 163248; John II Casimir 1609/ 48-68;
Michael 1640/ 69-73; John III
(Jan Sobieski; 1629/ 74-96).
Poland-Lithuania: Society
• Commonwealth of PolandLithuania.
• Union of Lublin 1569.
• Paradise of nobles. Szlachta.
Sejm.
• Serfs.
• Grain exports: 200,000 metric
tonnes annually in first years;
peak 1618 250,000; 100,000 midcentury.
• Gdnask/ Danzig; Warsaw. Loss to
Sweden of Riga and Dorpat/ Tartu
1621, 1629.
Poland-Lithuania and
neighbors 1617
Poland-Lithuania:
Government and Religion
• Sejmik (sejmiki); dietine.
• Sejm: Senate; Chamber of
Envoys.
• 1573: elective kingdom; pacta
conventa.
• All nobles elect King.
• Golden Freedom; religious
toleration; Socinians; Raków;
Arians; 1638 Socinian Academy
closed; 1658 Socinians and Arians
banished.
Poland: Government and
Religion
• Nobles could form a
confederation if they believed
King had infringed conditions of
rule.
• If the King persisted in breaking
the conditions, nobles could arm
the confederation: Rokosz (16069; 1665-6).
• Consensus politics; the liberum
veto – first used 1652; first used
at the start of the Sejm 1688.
Poland-Lithuania:
Narrative
• Vasa family: rulers of Sweden
from 1523.
• 1587 Sigismund Vasa elected
Sigismund III of Poland; he
became King of Sweden in 1592,
but was deposed in 1599.
• 1605: he married a Habsburg
(Constance; sister of Ferdinand
II), without the consent of the
Sejm; he planned constitutional
reforms.
• 1606: Rokosz of Mikołaj
Zebrzydowski.
Sigismund (Zygmunt) III
(1566/87-1632), c. 1590
Poland-Lithuania:
Narrative
• 1609: the Sejm ends the Rokosz
with an amnesty; henceforth a
Rokosz will be justified only after
the Sejm has given the King three
warnings.
• Władysław IV 1632-48. Cossacks
in Ukraine, resent Polish attempts
to Catholicize them and to
introduce serfdom; Władysław
plans to lead Cossack in attacking
Tatars (in Crimea) and Turks; Sejm
vetoes the plan.
• 1648: revolt of Bogdan
Khmelnitsky; death of
Władysław.
Monument to Bogdan Khmelnitsky,
central Kiev (1888; bronze; weighs
ten tons)
Poland-Lithuania:
Narrative
• John II Casimir (1609/ 48-68;
half-brother and first cousin of
Władysław IV; their mothers were
sisters). Maria Louisa (Ludwika
Maria) of Gonzaga-Nevers.
• Lubomirski. Radziwiłł. Janusz
Radziwiłł.
• Russian invasion; 1655 fall of
Vilnius; Radziwiłł invites in the
Swedes; 1655-60: Potop (the
Deluge).
• 1665-6: the Rokosz of Jerzy
Lubomirski.
Janusz Radziwiłł 1612-55
(here c. 1654)
The Black Madonna of
Częstochowa
• This medieval icon of the Virgin Mary
miraculously saved the monastery of
Jasna Góra from the Swedes in 1655,
and inspired Poles to fight back against
the invasion. In 1656 John II Casimir
declared Mary the Queen and
Protector of Poland.
Poland-Lithuania:
Narrative
• 1668: Abdication of John II
Casimir (d. in France 1672).
• 1669-73: Michael (Michał
Korybut Wiśniowiecki; b. 1640;
married a daughter of the
Habsburg Emperor Ferdinand III).
• 1674-96: John (Jan) III Sobieski
(b. 1629; grand hetman under
Michael).
• 1683: Sobieski helps save Vienna
from the Turks.
King Michael (Michał
Korybut Wiśniowiecki;
1640/ 69-73)
Poland-Lithuania 1686
351-2013
Seventeenth Century Europe
2013
Popular Revolts
•
•
•
Historiography:
Marxism; class struggle; ideas as epiphenomena of economic reality. Boris Porchnev.
The Annales school. Fernand Braudel. Structures (including mentalités); conjunctures; events. The
Mediterranean.
•
Conservative empiricism: Roland Mousnier: society based on orders not class; events can be
important: The Assassination of Henry IV.
Popular Revolts: Russia
•
The revolt of Ivan Bolotnikov (1565-1608) 1606-7: traditionally seen as a slave who became the leader
of a great peasant rebellion; but he was a former military bondsman and Cossack, and few of his
supporters were peasants.
•
Bolotnikov was a general in the forces that opposed Shuisky and the boyars (between False Dmitris);
they included service nobles, and promised land and noble status to their followers.
Popular Revolts: Russia
•
•
Bolotnikov 1606-7:
The rebels besieged Moscow in 1606, but were defeated. Bolotnikov was captured in 1607, and
blinded and drowned in 1611.
•
•
Stenka (Stepan Tomofeevich) Razin 1670-1:
Razin a Cossack; attacked Azov 1667; pirate on the Volga and in the Caspian Sea 1667-9; plundered
Persians 1669.
•
1670-1: Razin’s revolt.
Popular Revolts: Russia
•
•
•
•
Stenka Razin 1670-1:
Astrakhan 1670. Defenestration of Prince I. S. Prozorovskii.
Rebels head along the Volga towards Moscow.
Razin gains peasant support by promising them a better deal; gains some support among clergy (esp.
Old Believers); and among non-Russian peoples (e.g. Chuvashes).
Алёна Арзамасская: Alena Arzamasskaya (d. 1670)
•
A rare example of a female military leader was this ex-nun of peasant origin, who led an army of 7,000
men in Razin’s revolt. She was captured by tsarist troops and burned alive on the orders of their general.
Popular Revolts: Russia
•
Razin claimed to be fighting for the Tsar but against the Boyars; he also invoked the names of the
Virgin Mary, the Prophet Mohammed (some of his followers were Muslims) and the Patriarch Nikon.
•
The Razin rebels admitted that there were some good Boyars; their aims were vague; they were led
by Cossacks.
•
Tsarists Cossacks captured Razin 1671; he was executed.
Popular Revolts: Masaniello
•Revolt of Palermo (Sicily) May 1647 (suppressed September).
•Revolt of Naples July 7 1647; high taxation; new tax on fruit; rule of a narrow group of nobles, with the
Viceroy.
•The rebels’ first leader: Tommaso Aniello (Masaniello), a fisherman; murdered by his followers 16
July; given splendid burial the next day.
•Giulio Genoino (priest and lawyer). Gennaro Annese (arquebus maker).
•Neapolitan Republic 1647-8. French alliance.
•April 1648: Spain recovers Naples; amnesty, new Viceroy, abolition of some taxes.
Masaniello (Tommaso Aniello; 1622-47)
French Provincial Revolts
•
•
1632: Languedoc. Duke of Montmorency; Gaston d’Orléans.
1636-7: revolts of the Croquants: anti-tax revolts in a quarter of France (esp. SW); not confined to
peasants; sometimes led by a noble.
•
1639: revolt of the Nu-Pieds (bare feet; salt workers); Jean Nu-Pied; Jean Morel; provincial liberties;
elite leaders.
Popular Revolts
•
•
•
•
Did class matter?
Why was there not more revolt?
Patronage.
Romans 13:1: “Let every soul be subject unto the higher powers. For there is no power but of God:
the powers that be are ordained of God”.
•
Divine providence. Innovation wrong.
Louis XIV, Mazarin, and the Fronde
•
•
•
•
Anne of Austria (1601-66).
Jules Mazarin (Giulio Mazzarini; 1602-61).
Colonna. Pope Urban VIII.
1643: Anne Regent; conspiracy of François de Vendôme, Duke of Beaufort and Marie de Rohan,
Duchess of Chevreuse.
•
•
Jean-Baptiste Colbert; Michel Le Tellier.
Increasing cost of war: 1635-42 82 million livres annually; 1642-7 123 million.
Anne of Austria (1601-66) and Louis XIV c. 1645
Jules Mazarin (1602-61)
The Fronde 1648-53
•
•
Paris: high food prices 1648-54; size; a history of unruliness (the League).
Mazarin and Paris: 1644 new tax on building that had been done outside city limits; 1646-7 new taxes
on meat and wine; proposal to abolish paulette for some officeholders angers Parlement.
•
1648: rioting and rebellion; fronde = sling.
The Fronde of the Parlement, 1648-9
•
•
1648: Mazarin proposes new taxes and creation of new bureaucrats.
Parlement opposes Mazarin, uniting with other institutions of central bureaucracy (Great Council;
Chamber of Accounts; Cour des Aides).
•
•
27 Articles; arrest of Pierre Broussel.
Duchess of Longueville; (Condé).
Anne Geneviève de Bourbon, Duchess de Longueville (1619-79; sister of the Great Condé
The Fronde of the Parlement,1648-9; and of the Nobles, 1650-2
•
•
•
Release of Broussel.
Rebels seize control of Paris.
1649: Anne, Mazarin, and Louis leave Paris; March: they come to terms with Parlement, but do not
yet return.
•
•
1650-1: plot and rebellion of Condé; he is defeated by Turenne.
1652: Condé takes control of Bordeaux in southwest, and then Paris; Gaston d’Orléans, Broussel,
Beaufort.
Louis de Bourbon, Prince of Condé (1621-86; le Grand Condé)
The End of the Fronde and its results
•
•
1652: unable to hold Paris, Condé flees to the Spanish Netherlands; Louis and Anne return to Paris;
1653: return of Mazarin. Suppression of the last frondeur rebellion, the Ormée in Bordeaux (social
overtones; Levellers; Sexby).
•
Fronde persuades Louis XIV that absolute monarchy is only alternative to rebellion and anarchy. Most
French people see it as wasteful rebellion by self-interested bureaucrats and nobles, who had no
intention of introducing serious reforms; they conclude that absolute monarchy will better promote the
public good.
The English Civil Wars, 1642-6, 1648
•
•
1640-2: Charles I’s regime breaks down:
Scottish war (Bishops’ Wars) 1639-40; Short Parliament April-May 1640.
•
1640: the battle of Newburn (August) , the Scots’ occupation of northern England, and the Treaty of
Ripon (October). Newcastle. York.
•
1640: November 3: Long Parliament meets.
England: onset of Civil War 1640-2
•Criticisms of the King: constitutional issues (impositions; tonnage and poundage; Ship Money –
Hampden); religion (Laud; authoritarian Arminianism; tolerance of Catholics; Henrietta Maria).
•1641: Triennial Act; abolition of Star Chamber and High Commission.
•Divisions in the Long Parliament: social, constitutional, and religious issues; the mob; bishops;
Strafford (Thomas Wentworth).
•Irish Revolt, October 1641.
The Long Parliament passed an Act of Attainder against the Earl of Strafford; he was beheaded on May
12, 1641
England: start of the Civil War
•
•
Grand Remonstrance (November 1641).
Royalists: Edward Hyde; Lucius Cary (Falkland); Hobbes; George Digby; William Cavendish
(Newcastle); Prince Rupert.
•
Parliamentarians: John Pym; Oliver St John; John Hampden; Oliver Cromwell ; Denzil Holles; Edmund
Waller; Robert Devereux (Essex); William Fiennes (Saye and Sele)
•
Battle of Edgehill, October 1642.
English Civil War
•
1643: royalist successes: Sir Ralph Hopton; Newcastle’s army (including Whitecoats); the King and
Rupert; the siege of Gloucester; battle of Newbury.
•
1643: Parliament reorganizes: the Eastern Association and its army; Edward Montagu (Manchester);
Oliver Cromwell (Ironsides).
•
Collapse of censorship and church courts; proliferation of new sects.
The English Civil War: December 1643
English Civil War
•
1643: Parliament allies with Scots; Solemn League and Covenant; Wesminster Assembly;
Presbyterianism.
•
•
•
1644: Marston Moor. Essex and Manchester: failure and lethargy.
1645: Self-Denying Ordinance; New Model Army; Fairfax; Ireton; Naseby.
Presbyterians and Independents. Erastians.
English Revolution
•
•
•
1646: fall of Oxford; King surrenders to Scots.
1646-7: Denzil Holles and Presbyterians try to disband army; the army enters politics.
1647: Scots hand over Charles and go home.
•
•
1647: army marches into London; purges Parliament; Putney Debates; Levellers; Ireton.
1648: second Civil War; Preston; Maidstone and Colchester.
A Leveller pamphlet: John Lilburne’s Regall Tyrannie discovered, 1647
The Commonwealth 1649-60
•
•
•
•
•
•
1648: December 6: Pride’s Purge.
1649: January 30: execution of Charles I.
1649: abolition of monarchy and House of Lords; the Rump Parliament.
Radicals: Diggers; Quakers.
1649-50: Cromwell in Ireland: Drogheda; Wexford.
1650-1: Cromwell in Scotland; Dunbar 9/3.
Oliver Cromwell (1599-1658)
The Commonwealth 1649-60
•
•
•
1651: 9/3: Worcester, the “crowning mercy” (and the Royal Oak).
1653: Cromwell dissolves the Rump; Barebones Parliament; Fifth Monarchists.
1653-8: the Protectorate of Oliver Cromwell: social and political conservatism; religious radicalism/
tolerance; Instrument of Government 1653 (separation of powers; union with Scotland and Ireland);
Humble Petition and Advice 1657 (second chamber).
The Commonwealth 1649-60
•
•
English expansion overseas: Jamaica 1655; Robert Blake; Dunkirk 1658.
1658: 9/3: death of Oliver; Richard Cromwell Protector 1658-9; Rump revived 1659; drift to anarchy
1659-60.
•
•
1660: George Monck intervenes.
1660: May: Restoration of Charles II. Monarchy, House of Lords, bishops and Anglican church
restored.
The Coronation of Charles II, 1661: Monck follows the King
The Restoration, and the results of the revolutionary years
•The Restoration left open the question of religious toleration, and the details of how power would be
distributed between monarch and Parliament.
•The number of people belonging to religious groups outside the established Anglican church –
Presbyterians, Independents, Baptists, Quakers – was so large that it proved impossible to eradicate
them.
•There was general agreement that Civil Wars should be avoided in the future, and that slow,
piecemeal change was better than revolution.
Was there a General Crisis?
•
Revolts: Scotland, Normandy 1639; Catalonia, Portugal 1640; England 1642; Naples 1647; France
(Fronde), Russia, Ukraine, England 1648: coincidence? Or a General Crisis?
•
Connection with ending of 30 Years War?
•
•
Unruly nobles, oppressed peasants, high taxation; centralizing governments;
But all these things also existed at other times.
•
Geoffrey Parker: The World Crisis: Climate, Catastrophe, and State Breakdown in the 17th Century,
which examines the economic, social and political impact of extreme climatic events on states and their
population by looking at the last global crisis to leave abundant records: 1640-60
Was there a General Crisis?
•
Divergences: Thirty Years War not a factor in Ukraine, England, but it was in France, Spain; Mazarin
much more competent than Charles I.
•
One common factor, and perhaps a crucial one, may have been climate change in the form of cooling
temperatures. Geoffrey Parker argues that there was a world crisis that resulted from extreme climatic
events in 1640-60.
Louis XIV and France: Outline
•
•
•
•
•
(1) Introduction;
(2) The King’s personality.
(3) Domestic policy; Colbert’s reforms; reduction of power of great nobles and Parlement.
(4) Louis’ religious policies: attacks on the Huguenots and Jansenists.
(5) Louis’ conflicts with the pope; the régale; Gallicanism.
•
(6) Setbacks in the 1690s: start of decline?
Louis XIV: Introduction
•Louis born September 1638; King - May 1643.
•Declared of age 1651, but left Mazarin to govern until he died in 1661.
•Sun King 1662; his reign the high point of absolutism.
•Louis continues and extends policies of Richelieu and Mazarin, reducing independence of great nobles,
undermining powers of Parlement, and combating Huguenots.
•Louis (and Colbert) had plans for economic reform (like Richelieu) but again shelved them to fight wars
(from 1672).
Louis XIV, 1664
Louis XIV, 1701
Louis XIV: Personality
•Medium height (wore high heels); good deportment; fond of hunting; intelligent and hard-working;
fond of food, not drink.
•Reserved, secretive; skilled at using arts as propaganda.
•Liked billiards. Collected art, coins, books (with pictures).
•Perhaps read Hobbes’ De Cive; liked to be read to, especially by Jean Racine.
Louis XIV: Personality
•
1660 married Maria Theresa; in 1661 she gave birth to the Dauphin Louis.
•
•
•
Mistresses: Louise (later Duchess) de la Vallière; Françoise-Athénaïs, Marquise de Montespan.
The Affair of Poisons 1677-82.
Françoise d’Aubigné (Scarron), Marquise de Maintenon.
Louise de la Vallière (1644-1710)
Françoise-Athénaïs, Marquise de Montespan (1641-1707)
Françoise d’Aubigné, Marquise de Maintenon (1635-1717)
Louis and domestic affairs: Colbert
•
•
•
•
•
•
1661: Louis restructures the conseil d’en haut.
Nicolas Fouquet (finance) sacked and imprisoned.
Hugues de Lionne (foreign affairs, to 1671).
Charles Colbert (Colbert’s brother; foreign affairs 1679-96).
Michel Le Tellier (war; to 1666); his sister married Colbert’s cousin.
François Michel Le Tellier, Marquis de Louvois (war; 1666-91).
Jean-Baptiste Colbert (1619-83)
Louis and domestic affairs: Colbert
•
Jean-Baptiste Colbert (1619-83); family of (ex-) traders, noble from 1650s; educated by Jesuits;
apprenticed to a banker, and then to a lawyer; a clerk in Le Tellier’s office; 1651 Mazarin’s personal
financial manager.
•
Colbert in office: minister 1661, in charge of finance (controller-general 1665); superintendant of
building and arts 1664; secretary of state for the navy 1669 (increased navy from 19 to 140 warships).
Louis and domestic affairs: Colbert
•
Nobles: great nobles invited to attend court and given meaningless titles/ offices; lesser nobles
threatened with investigations into their noble status.
•
Bureaucrats: number of hereditary offices reduced; Parlement of Paris deprived of right to issue
remonstrances before registering royal edicts 1673; power of Provincial Estates reduced.
•
Intendants: powers increased.
Louis and domestic affairs: Colbert
•
•
Finance: efficient accounting; return of peace increases prosperity, and indirect taxes; direct taxes fall.
Economic projects: high tariffs; state-run factories and trading companies; East and West India
Companies.
•
•
•
Gobelins. Versailles 1682.
Academy of Sciences 1666.
Colbertisme? Economic policies disrupted by war from 1672.
The Palace of Versailles
Versailles: a tapestry produced by the Gobelins factory
Louis XIV, Religion, and the Church
•
Jansenists:
•
•
•
•
Cornelius Jansen (1585-1638) Bishop of Ypres; Mars Gallicus 1635; Augustinus 1640.
Antoine Arnaud. Pierre Nicole.
Port-Royal and Port-Royal-des-Champs.
1649 University of Paris condemns 5 propositions from Augustinus; 1653 Pope Innocent X condemns
the propositions.
Louis XIV and Religion: Jansenists
•Blaise Pascal; Lettres Provinciales (1657); probabilism; probabiliorism; laxist casuistry; Louis
condemns the Lettres.
•Nuns at Port-Royal in Paris sent to Port-Royal-des-Champs 1665.
•1669-79: Peace of the Church; Clement IX; Duchess of Longueville (d.1679).
•Louis exiles Jansenist leaders.
•1709: Port-Royal-des-Champs closed.
•1713: Clement XI issues bull Unigenitus.
Port-Royal-des-Champs 1709
Louis XIV and Religion: Huguenots
•
Louis undermines rights of Huguenots (e.g. to national synod; to representation on law courts
deciding cases involving Edict of Nantes)
•
Huguenots who convert given tax exemption.
•
•
•
1681: dragonnades; 1683: death of Colbert; Madame de Maintenon ascendant; siege of Vienna.
1685: Edict of Fontainbleau (Revocation of the Edict of Nantes).
1702-10: Camisards. Cévennes.
Louis XIV and Religion: the Pope and the
•
•
•
•
•
•
Concordat of Bologna 1516.
Régale spirituelle; Régale temporelle.
Gallicanism. Jacques-Bénigne Bossuet.
Four Articles of the Assembly of the Clergy 1682.
The pope refuses to confirm appointments of bishops.
1693: Louis XIV climbs down.
Jacques-Bénigne Bossuet (1627-1704)
Louis XIV: setbacks in the 1690s
•
•
•
War; revolts in Brittany and Bordeaux 1674-5.
Louis Phélypeaux comte de Pontchartrain (finance; 1689-): sale of offices and titles.
1693-4: famine; 1695: capitation tax.
•
Late 1680s on: calls for reform; opposition at court; Duke of Burgundy; François de Salignac de la
Mothe Fénelon, Archbishop of Cambray; Télémaque (1699); Pierre de Boisguilbert 1695; Sebastian Le
Prestre, Marquis de Vauban (1707).
Sebastian Le Prestre, Marquis de Vauban (1633-1707)
•Vauban was the foremost military engineer of his age, and a Marshal of France; he was also a social
thinker who opposed the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes on economic grounds (1685), and published
Projet d’une Dixme Royale (1707) arguing for a ten percent tax that would be equally payable by
everyone.
Louis XIV and Europe: Wars
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Gloire; Charlemagne; Louis’ views on Habsburgs, English, Dutch.
Outline:
(1) The War of Devolution 1667-8.
(2) The Dutch War 1672-8.
(3) An uneasy peace, 1678-88; réunions.
(4) The War of the League of Augsburg (Nine Years War) 1688-97.
(5) The War of the Spanish Succession 1701-13.
Louis XIV and Europe: The War of Devolution 1667-8
•The War of Devolution 1667-8.
•Maria Teresa’s dowry. Brabant. Devolution.
•Le Tellier and Louvois. Army: 1661 – less than 20,000; 1667 – 72,000.
•Condé; Turenne; Vauban; Lille; Franch-Comté.
•1668: The Triple Alliance: Dutch Republic, Britain, Sweden.
•French restore Franch-Comté and much of the Spanish Netherlands, but keep Lille and 11 other
fortified towns.
The War of Devolution, 1667-8
Louis XIV: the Dutch War 1672-8/9
•
1667: tariff war with Dutch; 1670: Treaty of Dover; 1672: army now 120,000; attempt to bribe William
of Orange; Britain declares war on Dutch; invasion.
•
•
•
1672: fall of Utrecht; opening of the dikes.
1672: revolt against De Witt; William III stadholder; 1673: Habsburgs ally with Dutch.
(John Churchill and d’Artagnan at the siege of Maastricht, taken by Vauban 1673).
Louis XIV: the Dutch War 1672-8/9
•
•
1674: Britain makes peace; Denmark and Brandenburg join war, defeating France’s ally Sweden.
1674: French take Franche-Comté.
•
•
•
1678-9: Treaty of Nijmegen (with Dutch and Spain 1678; with the Empire 1679):
France retains Franch-Comté.
Denmark and Brandenburg return gains to Sweden.
Louis XIV: between (big) wars 1678-88
•
•
•
•
Réunions: 1681: Strasbourg (Strassburg) in Alsace (Elsass); 1683: Luxembourg (Luxemburg).
1684: bombardment of Genoa; 20 year truce between Louis and Leopold.
1685: Revocation of the Edict of Nantes; James II in Britain; Palatinate – disputed succession.
1686: League of Augsburg.
Louis XIV: the War of the League of Augsburg 1688-97
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1688: Louis invades the Palatinate; Glorious Revolution in England (William III and Mary II).
1690: Ireland: Battle of the Boyne (1/11 July).
Growth of French army (to 300,000) and deficit.
1697: French take Barcelona, Cartagena.
1697: Peace of Ryswick: France returns recent gains, and some older ones – including Luxemburg and
Breisach; Louis recognizes William III as King of Britain.
Louis XIV: the War of the Spanish Succession 1701-13
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First partition treaty 1698: Joseph Ferdinand of Bavaria to get most of Spanish inheritance (he was the
grandson of Leopold I and of Margaret Theresa of Spain, the sister of Charles II); but Joseph Ferdinand
died in 1699.
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Second partition treaty 1700: Archduke Charles (Austrian Habsburg) to get most of the Spanish
inheritance on condition it could never be united with the Holy Roman Empire.
Louis XIV: the War of the Spanish Succession 1701-13
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Second Partition Treaty: not accepted by Austria or by Spain; Charles II did not want his lands divided,
and so willed them all to Philip of Anjou, a younger grandson of Louis XIV;
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Charles II’s will said that if France turned down the lands, they would go to Charles, Archduke of
Austria.
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1700: Charles II died.
1701: Louis XIV seized key fortresses in Spanish Netherlands, and on death of James II recognized
James III as King of Britain.
Louis XIV: the War of the Spanish Succession 1701-13
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1704: Blenheim: John Churchill (Marlborough) and Eugene of Savoy defeat French and Bavarians.
1707: Almanza: French and Spanish victory securing Spain (their commander was James FitzJames,
Duke of Berwick, son of James II and Arabella Churchill, Marlborough’s sister)
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1709: Malplaquet: Marlborough and Eugene defeat the French at high cost; famine in France.
Two Victorious Generals on opposite sides: John Churchill, Duke of Marlborough (1650-1722), and his
nephew James FitzJames, Duke of Berwick (1670-1734)
Louis XIV: the War of the Spanish Succession 1701-13
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1710: fall of the Whigs in England.
1711: Archduke Charles succeeds his brother Joseph as Holy Roman Emperor (Charles VI).
1713: Peace of Utrecht (1714: Treaty of Rastatt).
Philip of Anjou keeps Spain and Spanish America as Philip V
Austria gets Southern Netherlands, Milan, and Naples. Dutch and especially British make gains.
Louis XIV: Assessment
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Pierre Goubert
Emmanuel Le Roy Ladurie
Jean Racine
Molière (Jean-Baptiste Poquelin)
Voltaire
Colbert
Famine 1693-4, 1709-10
Late-Seventeenth Century Europe
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Outline:
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(1) Austria); (2) Brandenburg-Prussia; (3) Russia under Peter the Great: (a) the Great Northern War
1700-21; (b) domestic reforms; (4) Sweden; (5) the Dutch Republic; (6) Britain: (a) the Exclusion Crisis
1679-81; (b) the Glorious Revolution 1688-9; (c) William III and Mary II; (d) Anne.
Late-Seventeenth Century Europe: Austria
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Austria:
Leopold I (1640/ 1657/8-1705): “Hog-mouth”.
Army of 100,000 in 1690s.
Cameralism/ Cameral Science.
Transylvania. Rákóczi family.
Turks: Grand Viziers Mehmed Küprülü (1656-61); Ahmed Küprülü (1661-76); Kara Mustafa (1676-83).
Rebellion of Imre Thököly 1676-86.
Siege of Vienna 1683. Eugene of Savoy. Buda 1686. Belgrade 1688. Treaty of Karlowitz 1699.
Treaty of Rastatt 1714: Southern Netherlands, Milan, Naples, Sardinia.
Brandenburg-Prussia
•
Brandenburg. Berlin. Hohenzollern.
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Electors: Joachim Frederick 1598-1608; John Sigismund 1608-19; George William 1619-40; Frederick
William, the Great Elector 1640-88; Frederick III 1688-1700 = King Frederick I 1700-13.
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1613: Elector becomes Calvinist.
1614: Cleves; Ravensberg; Mark.
1618: (East) Prussia (from Poland to 1657) Königsberg.
Brandenburg-Prussia
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George William (1595/ 1619-40); married the sister of Frederick V (Palatinate; Bohemia); his own
sister married Gustavus Adolphus.
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Adam, Count Schwarzenberg.
1637: George William inherits Pomerania.
Frederick William, the Great Elector (1620/ 40-88).
Junkers. Army: under 2,000 1648; 27,000 1660; 45,000 1670s.
The Great Elector (on a West German stamp, 1995)
Brandenburg-Prussia
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Estates of Brandenburg 1653. Rights of junkers over towns and peasants confirmed.
Prussia: opposition in Königsberg broken 1674.
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The Great Elector: diplomacy and foreign policy: 1655-60: war with Poland and Sweden; 1672-9: war
with France and Sweden; 1675: Fehrbellin; 1679 treaty with France; 1685: alliance against France;
admission of Huguenots.
Brandenburg-Prussia
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1662-8: Oder-Spree canal (Stettin; Berlin)
Frederick III/ I (1657/ 88-1713).
University of Halle 1694.
1700: Frederick allies with Emperor Leopold I over Spanish Succession; Leopold confers title of King of
Prussia on Frederick.
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1701: Frederick crowned King of Prussia.
1720: most of western Pomerania bought from Swedes.
Russia under Peter the Great 1682-1725
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1689: removal of Sophia (sister of Ivan V, Peter’s half-brother); Natalya (Peter’s mother) in charge.
1694: death of Natalya; Peter’s personal rule begins (Ivan V d. 1696).
1697-8: Peter tours the West.
Foreign advisors: Patrick Gordon; Andrew Ostermann.
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Lower class advisors: Peter Shafirov; Alexander Menshikov.
Peter I, the Great (1672-1725)
Russia under Peter the Great
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Azov 1696. Sreltsy revolt 1698. Eudoxia.
The Great Northern War 1700-21:
Augustus the Strong of Poland and Saxony.
Charles XII (1682/ 97-1718) of Sweden.
Battle of Narva 1700.
Russian invasion of Livonia and Estonia 1701-2.
Foundation of St Petersburg 1703.
Russia under Peter the Great
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1706: defeat of Augustus the Strong; he abdicates in Poland.
1708: Russians defeat Swedes at Lesnaia.
1709: Peter defeats Charles at Poltava.
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1710-11: Charles ally with Turks, who nearly overwhelm Russia but make peace 1711; Azov returned
to them.
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1710: Russia takes Riga, Reval, Viborg.
Russia under Peter the Great
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1713-14: Russia occupies much of Finland.
1714: Russians defeat Swedes at sea.
1718: Charles XII dies.
1721: Treaty of Nystadt; Russia gets Estonia, Livonia, and a slice of Finland including Viborg.
1721: Peter given titles of Emperor, the Great, and Father of the Fatherland.
Russia under Peter the Great
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Domestic reforms:
Reform and modernization of army.
Navy built; 48 large warships; 800 smaller ships.
Senate: 9 (1711); 10 (1712).
Colleges of war, navy, justice etc. (1717).
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Office of patriarch left vacant 1700.
Tolerance towards western religions.
Russia under Peter the Great
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Most Drunken Synod of Fools and Jesters.
Bureaucratic reforms.
Promotion of industry, textiles, mining, metallurgy; Neva-Volga canal 1703-9.
Reform of calendar. Westernization.
Peter kills his son and heir Alexis 1718.
1725: death of Peter, succeeded by his wife Catherine, a Lithuanian peasant.
Marta Helena Skowrońska (1684-1727): illiterate Lithuanian peasant, housemaid, and later (1725-7)
Empress of Russia
Sweden; the Dutch Republic
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1670s: Sweden allies with French; defeated by Denmark and Brandenburg.
1680-2: constitutional revolution makes the king absolute.
1697-1718: Charles XII: aggressive foreign policy hastens decline.
Dutch Republic from 1672: long, expensive wars, and competition from Britain cause start of decline.
Charles XII of Sweden (1682/1697-1718)
William III (b. 1650), Stadholder of Holland (1672-1702) and King of England (1689-1702)
Britain
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Charles II 1660-85; James II 1685-8; William III (1689-1702) and Mary II (1689-94); Anne (1702-14).
Popish Plot 1678. Titus Oates.
Exclusion Crisis 1679-81. Whigs. Tories.
Shaftesbury (Anthony Ashley Cooper). John Locke.
James II: toleration of Catholics and Dissenters.
Tories driven from local power.
Britain
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James II: dispensing/ suspending power.
Revocation of the Edict of Nantes 1685.
A Letter to a Dissenter 1687 (Halifax); 1688 (Defoe).
The “warming pan” baby James 1688.
The trial of the Seven Bishops 1688.
The “Immortal Seven”.
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William visits England (with 15,000 troops).
Britain
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1688: Churchill switches sides (Sarah; Anne).
1688: The Glorious Revolution.
Revolution Settlement:
Parliament; cabinet; prime minister (1720s).
1689: Toleration Act; Bill of Rights.
1694: end of pre-publication censorship of the press.
1701: Act of Settlement.
Sarah Churchill (née Jenyns) 1660-1744
Britain
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Scotland: Glencoe massacre 1692 (Macdonalds; by Campbells).
Ireland: siege of (London)Derry 1688-9; gun money; battle of the Boyne (July 1/11 1690).
Jacobites.
William III (1650/89-1702) and Mary II (1662/89-94): battle of La Hogue 1692; Bank of England 1694;
re-coinage (Locke, Newton) 1696.
Britain
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Anne (1665/1702-14):
War of the Spanish Succession 1701-13/14; Marlborough (John Churchill); Blenheim 1704.
Union with Scotland 1707.
Whigs. Tories. Occasional conformity. 1710 impeachment of Henry Sacheverell. Tory triumph in
elections. Abigail Masham.
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Peace of Utrecht 1713: British gains: Gibraltar (Rooke 1704); Acadia (Cajuns); Newfoundalnd; St Kitts;
asiento.
Queen Anne: medal celebrating victories 1704
The Military Revolution
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Michael Roberts 1955: (1) changes in tactics: pike and musket; (2) growth in size of armies; (3) more
ambitious strategies; (4) impact of war on society.
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Later revisions: Dutch contribution; siege warfare.
Geoffrey Parker.
Outline: (1) Land warfare; (2) Navies; (3) Impact of war on society.
The Military Revolution
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Land warfare: guns and fortifications.
Trace italienne. Siege of Ostend 1601-4. Siege of ’s-Hertogenbosch 1629; Dutch besiegers construct
25 miles of defensive fortifications.
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Pikemen; musketeers; (musket; arquebus).
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Flintlock. Bayonet.
1594: Dutch: continuous fire by lines of musketeers.
Trace Italienne: Breda
Trace Italienne: low, thick, angled bastions
Types of Pike (Pike; Halberd; Partisan; Spontoon)
The Military Revolution
•Drill. Jacob de Gheyn 1607. Maurice of Nassau; Frederick Henry; Gustavus Adolphus.
•Breitenfeld 1631.
•Growth in size of armies:
•Spain: 1470: 20,000; 1630s: 300,000.
•France: 1550s: 50,000; 1630s: 150,000; 1700: 400,000.
•Sweden: 1590s: 15,000; 1650s: 70,000; 1700s: 100,000.
•Dutch: 1590s: 20,000; 1700s: 100,000.
Jacob de Gheyn’s Drill Manual
De Gheyn: handling a musket (German and French; 1664)
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The Military Revolution
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Navies:
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Galley; galleass; galleon.
Frigate. Ship of the line.
Trans-oceanic exploration/ colonization.
Military change and society:
Growth of armies – higher taxation – larger bureaucracies – state centralization – but this did not
always lead to erosion of representative institutions.
A Galleass
Ideas
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Greek and Latin classics; Roman Law (Civil Law); canon law; medieval scholasticism and Renaissance
humanism.
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Scholasticism and humanism:
Scholasticism: Aquinas; Ockham; Aristotle.
Humanism: lay culture; Italian city states (Florence – Medici; Milan – Visconti; Sforza); practicalities;
persuasion; eloquence; Cicero; Tacitus.
Ideas: Humanism
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From 1400s: Greek texts: Plato.
“Ad fontes” (to the sources).
Mid-1400s: Printing. Late-1400s/ early-1500s: Aldus Manutius; italic; Venice.
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Printing in the late-1500s/ 1600s: Elzevir; Dutch Republic.
Desiderius Erasmus 1515 New Testament in Greek.
Aldine Italic and Anchor
Elzevir: Print (1661), and a title-page (1630)
Ideas: Humanism
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Scholastic humanists? Jesuits (and Calvinists).
Civic humanism: Florence early 1400s; republicanism; duty of citizens to participate actively in politics.
Niccolò Machiavelli; Discourses; Prince; reason of state.
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Christian humanism:
Erasmus; Sir Thomas More; doctrine de-emphasized; stress on ethics and (often) tolerance; Grotius;
Levellers; William Walwyn; John Locke; Epistola de Tolerantia (1689).
Ideas: Neo-Scholasticism
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The School of Salamanca; Francisco de Vitoria; Relectio de Indis (1532).
Francisco Suárez (1548-1617); Coimbra; De Legibus (On Laws; 1612).
Natural law; goals and institutions: survival/ family; prosperity / state (perfect community); salvation
church.
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Harmony of nature/ reason and grace/ revelation.
Ideas: Absolutism and the Divine Right of Kings
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Jean Bodin (1530-96).
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Six livres de la République (1576; Six books of the commonwealth).
Comparative sociology/ politics; climate.
Absolute and indivisible sovereignty.
Mixed or limited government impossible; all key political powers must be held by one person/ group.
Jean Bodin (1530-96)
Jean Bodin, Six Bookes of a Common-weale, 1606
Absolutism and the Divine Right of Kings
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Bodin: non-resistance; only three possible forms of government (monarchy; aristocracy; democracy;
contrast with Aristotle); we should disobey commands of sovereign if they are against laws of God or
nature, but not resist sovereign (passive obedience); sovereign should respect rights of property
(taxation normally requires consent), but can override them in emergencies.
Absolutism and the Divine Right of Kings
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Divine Right of Kings (/ Sovereigns): ruler gets power from God alone (Romans 13:1), and is
accountable only to God.
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Divine Right ideas compatible with non-monarchical forms of government: Venice;
Johannes Althusius; Politica methodice digesta (1603; 1610, 1614): divine right democracy.
Henry Parker, Observations 1642.
Divine Right of Kings: Patriarchalism
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Widely accepted that father / husband has power by nature in the family (but N.B. Mary Astell).
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Patriarchalists argue that first families were indistinguishable from kingdoms; Adam lived for
hundreds of years; later governments have the same powers Adam did; political power is natural and
does not stem from consent.
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Sir Robert Filmer (1588-1653); Patriarcha (c. 1632; 1680).
Filmer’s Patriarcha, published in 1680
Rubens: the Apotheosis of Henry IV (1621-5)
Absolutism and the Divine Right of Kings
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French absolutists: Cardin Le Bret, De la Souveraineté (1632; justifies Richelieu’s policies); JacquesBénigne Bossuet, Politique tirée des propres paroles de l’Écriture sainte (1670s-1709; N.B. also Bossuet’s
Gallicanism).
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Reason of state; ragione di stato; raison d’état:
Giovanni Botero (1589); Louis Machon; Gabriel Naudé.
Absolutism and the Divine Right of Kings
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Britain:
James VI and I. The True Law of Free Monarchies 1598.
Filmer.
Thomas Hobbes: absolutism grounded on science and deduced from first principles by a quasigeometric method; The Elements of Law, Natural and Politic 1640; De Cive 1642, 1647; Leviathan 1651.
Thomas Hobbes c. 1647
Thomas Hobbes’ Leviathan 1651
Absolutism: Hobbes
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Hobbes:
Self-preservation; the state of nature; the right of nature; the law of nature.
“poor, solitary, nasty, brutish, and short”.
War of all against all.
Covenants create obligations, but are binding only once there is a sovereign; we have no rights of
property against the sovereign.
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Right of self-defense against sovereign.
Constitutionalism and contract
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Suárez: De Legibus (1612); Defensio fidei catholicae (1613): people were at first free and equal; so no
one had better claim to rule than anyone else; but nature requires government; so first governments
were direct democracies; so all later governments derive their powers from the first democracy, by
contract.
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The original contract defines the powers of current governments.
Francisco Suárez (1548-1617)
Constitutionalism and contract
•
Suárez: powers of modern governments vary because they stem from different original contracts in
different countries.
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Customs and constitutional practices derive from the original contract.
If rulers break the contract they can be resisted;
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The Parlement of Paris condemns Defensio fidei 1613; retreat from radical contractualism after 1610.
Constitutionalism and contract
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Conservative contractualism: absolutism can be based on contract; resistance is permissible only in
extreme circumstances.
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Hugo Grotius (1583-1645); De jure belli ac pacis (1625); “etiamsi daremus”.
Samuel Pufendorf (1632-94); De jure naturae et gentium (1672).
Radical contractualism: Levellers; regicides; Pierre Jurieu (contrast Pierre Bayle).
Samuel Pufendorf 1632-94
Constitutionalism and contract
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John Locke (1632-1704). Two Treatises of Government (1689);
Contract theory and resistance.
Second treatise, chapter 5: “Of Property”:
The Labor Theory of Property; earth originally held in common; what makes something private
property? Discovery; first occupation? Mixing labor with things, provided the things don’t waste; the
role of money. America, or James II?
John Locke’s Two Treatises 1689
Republicanism and radicalism
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Dutch Republic under De Witt 1650s-1672: alliance of science and republicanism (against Calvinist
clergy and Orange family).
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Benedict (Baruch) Spinoza (1632-77): Tractatus politicus 1677; Hobbes and Machiavelli – absolute
sovereign democracy; toleration.
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England 1640s-50s: checks and balances; separation of powers.
James Harrington 1611-77
Republicanism and radicalism
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James Harrington (1611-77). Oceana 1656. People self-interested (Hobbes). Distribution of wealth
determines distribution of power. The Gothic balance destroyed. Two girls and a cake. Cats and green
sauce.
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Bi-cameral legislature. Rotation of office. Agrarian law. Secret ballot.
Levellers. Diggers. Gerrard Winstanley.
Skepticism: the Pyrrhonian Crisis
•Aristotelianism undermined: Copernicus; Galileo.
•“And new philosophy calls all in doubt ...
‘Tis all in pieces, all coherence gone” (John
Donne).
•Exploration undermines idea that European customs are natural/ universal.
•Rediscovery in later sixteenth century of writings of Sextus Empiricus (c.160-210); unreliability of
senses; suspension of judgment. Pyrrho.
•Michel de Montaigne (1533-92); Pierre Charron (1541-1603).
Michel Eyquem de Montaigne (1533-92); essayist and skeptic
Scientific Revolution: Outline
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(1) Introduction: in 1600 alchemy not yet fully distinguished from chemistry, not astrology from
astronomy; many scientists held non-scientific views – Napier, Newton; science not fully distinguished
from philosophy – Descartes (Cartesianism), Bacon, Hobbes, Spinoza, Locke, Leibniz; (2) Copernicus; (3)
Tycho Brahe; (4) Johannes Kepler; (5) Galileo; (6) Other scientific advances; (7) Newton; (8) Scientific
organization.
Scientific Revolution: Copernicus
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Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543); Polish priest.
De revolutionibus orbium coelestium 1543
Aristotle (300BC); Ptolemy (100s AD)
Geocentric and heliocentric theories
Aristotle/ Ptolemy: (1) sublunary sphere: decay; motion in straight line downwards; (2) motionless
earth at center of universe; (3) superlunary sphere: no decay; motion in perfect circles.
Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543)
Copernicus
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Aristotle/ Ptolemy: retrograde motion; epicycles.
Copernicus: heliocentric theory; earth’s diurnal and annual motion; perfect circles; epicycles remain.
Objections to Copernicus: (1) why no stellar parallax? (2) if the earth is moving, why don’t things fall
at an angle?
Copernicus
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More objections: Psalms 93:1 says the earth cannot be moved; Joshua told the sun to stand still.
Copernicus published reluctantly, at the end of his life; he asserted his theory as hypothesis, not
dogmatic truth.
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Increasing intellectual/ religious intolerance by both Catholics and Protestants in later 1500s;
Luther and Calvin reject Copernicus’s views, as did most astronomers.
Tycho Brahe (1546-1601)
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Tycho Brahe: Danish astronomer; worked for King of Denmark and then Emperor Rudolf II.
A duel (1566) and a (partially) metal nose.
Brahe’s theory: sun and moon go round earth; planets go round sun.
1572: a supernova in Cassiopeia; Brahe concludes that things change in the superlunary sphere.
Careful, detailed observations. Employed Kepler.
Tycho Brahe
Johannes Kepler (1571-1630)
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German astronomer, astrologer, and mathematician; defended Copernicanism.
Taught at Graz; expelled (as a Lutheran) 1600; invited by Brahe to Prague; succeeded him as Imperial
mathematician 1601; later worked for Wallenstein.
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1605 argued that planets move in elliptical orbits (published 1609).
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Epitome of Copernican Astronomy 1617-21; three laws of planetary motion; a planet’s speed varies
with its distance from the sun.
Johannes Kepler
Galileo Galilei (1564-1642)
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Galileo born in Pisa; father a musician; educated in a monastery and thought of becoming a monk or
priest; instead went to University of Pisa to study medicine, but left without a degree.
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Studied mathematics and physics.
1588: published a book on the center of gravity in solids; it gained him patronage of Marquis
Guidobaldo del Monte and his brother, a Cardinal.
Galileo
Galileo
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1589: the del Monte brothers secured him appointment as professor of mathematics at Pisa
University.
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1591: he quarreled with an illegitimate son of the Grand Duke of Tuscany (over the son’s ideas for a
machine to drain marshes), and left Pisa.
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1592: the del Monte brother find him a post at Padua University.
Galileo
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1594: at Padua Galileo adopts Copernicanism
1600: Marina Gamba moved into his house and has three children; two daughters (who are sent to a
nunnery) and a son (who is eventually legitimated).
•
1608: Hans Lippershey makes a telescope.
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1609: Galileo makes a better one; he shows that the moon is not smooth.
1610: he discovers 4 moons of Jupiter, rotating around the planet; not everything rotates round the
earth.
Modern picture of Galileo with his refracting telescope
Galileo
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1610: published Sidereus Nuncius; becomes famous; goes to Florence as mathematician to Grand
Duke Cosimo II; also gets professorship at Pisa.
•
Discovers sunspots, and the phases of Venus – suggesting Venus goes round sun (compatible with
theories of both Copernicus and Brahe).
•
1613: Letters on Sunspots supports Copernicanism
Galileo and the bible
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1613: dinner with Cosimo; question raised of compatibility of bible with Copernicanism.
1613: manuscript “Letter to Castelli”
1615: Letter to the Grand Duchess Christina (printed 1636)
These two letters argued that church should abandon cosmology of Aristotle/ Ptolemy, and interpret
biblical passages which conflict with Copernicanism as metaphorical.
Galileo and the clergy
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Some clergy attacked Galileo in sermons, denying that he had the right to interpret the bible.
1615: the letter to Castelli was reported to the Inquisition in Rome.
Galileo himself wanted to involve Rome and especially Robert Bellarmine, hoping the church would
endorse his ideas.
Bellarmine (1542-1621), by Bernini, 1622
Galileo and Bellarmine
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Bellarmine unconvinced; noted that not only bible but Fathers and other Catholic writers rejected
Copernicanism.
•
Bellarmine argued that Catholic tradition should not be abandoned unless there was absolute proof it
was mistaken; anything else played into the hands of heretics.
•
Bellarmine thought Copernicanism could be used as a hypothesis, but not taught as true.
Galileo and the church
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•
Bellarmine unconvinced by telescopic observations (bad eyesight).
Galileo thought planetary motion was circular; that comets were caused by refraction of sun’s rays in
atmosphere; that tides result from earth’s motion (not moon).
•
Many of Galileo’s observations compatible with Brahe’s system, taught by Jesuits at Rome.
Galileo and the Jesuits
•
1616: Copernicus’s book put on Index (until corrected); Galileo told not to teach Copernicanism as
true.
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1619: Galileo quarrels with Jesuit Orazio Grassi over comets; Jesuits increasingly hostile to him.
1623: The Assayer (Il Saggiatore)
The book was examined by the Inquisition but cleared in 1625.
Galileo: The Assayer and the mechanical philosophy
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•
The Assayer important less for what it said on comets than for:
(1) arguing that secondary qualities – color, taste, etc. – are not in things but in our perception of
them; (2) there are no substantial forms (e.g. of a table, donkey, etc.); (3) there are no final causes /
teleologies; (4) stress on mathematics as central to science; (5) physical universe is matter in motion
behaving according to laws.
Galileo’s Dialogue on the Great World Systems (1632)
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•
By 1630 Galileo had finished his Dialogue on the Great World Systems.
He took it to Rome to get it licensed.
He had been on friendly terms with the man who in 1623 had become Pope Urban VIII.
Perhaps in part because of this, the papal licenser gave permission for the book to be published; it
was in 1632 at Florence.
The Trial of Galileo, 1633
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The Dialogue discussed Copernicanism, and seemingly portrayed it as clearly correct.
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Galileo said it didn’t teach Copernicanism, but only presented the evidence so the reader could
decide.
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Pope Urban thought his own views were being mocked in the book.
Galileo was called to Rome, questioned by the Inquisition, threatened with torture, and told he was
suspected of heresy.
Galileo: Trial and aftermath
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Galileo agreed to give up Copernicanism
“Eppur si mouve”
He was sentenced to imprisonment but allowed to live in house arrest in the countryside near
Florence.
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Died 1642.
Galileo’s condemnation chills science in Catholic countries; Descartes withdraws a pro-Copernican
book from the press.
Galileo
•Catholic ban on teaching Copernicanism lifted 1758; Copernicus’s writings removed from Index 1835;
Galileo’s condemnation reversed 1979.
•Galileo: work in mechanics: falling bodies move at speed proportional to time they’ve fallen,
regardless of weight density; but story of leaning tower of Pisa experiment apocryphal (Simon Stevin did
a similar experiment in Holland earlier).
•Projectiles move in parabolas.
•Analyzed complex motions as combinations of simple ones, described mathematically.
Other Scientific Advances
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Barometer: Evangelista Torricelli 1643 (pupil of Galileo and Castelli).
Airpump: Otto von Guericke 1650.
William Gilbert De Magnete 1600: distinguished magnetism from electricity (invented latter word);
earth a magnet.
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William Harvey: circulation of blood in animals 1628.
Airpump of Robert Boyle
More Advances in Science
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Compound microscope: Zacharias Janssen 1595; Galileo 1610.
Antony van Leeuwenhoek (1632-1723): bacteria; protozoa; sperm; red blood cells.
Robert Boyle (1627-91): father of chemistry; Boyle’s Law (pressure of gas inversely proportional to
volume).
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John Napier: logarithms 1614. Descartes: co-ordinate geometry. Leibniz: calculus.
Sir Isaac Newton (1642-1727)
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Professor of mathematics at Cambridge 1669-1701.
Gravity; laws of motion; mathematical foundations for observations of Galileo etc.
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Philosophiae naturalis principia mathematica (1687): every body in the universe attracts every other
body with a force proportional to their mass and inversely proportional to the square of the distance
between them.
Newton
Newton
•Demonstrated how his laws explain motion of tides, moon, comets, planets, and their satellites.
•Opticks 1704.
•The Newtonian reflector. Calculus.
•Member of Parliament 1689-90; 1701-2.
•Master of the Mint from 1696 (responsible for re-coinage 1696-7).
•Socinian; anti-Trinitarian; interested in biblical prophecies.
•President of the Royal Society from 1703.
Scientific Organization(s)
•Accademia dei Lincei founded 1603; Galileo a member 1611.
•Samuel Hartlib (c. 1600-62; German/ Polish/ English) and his circle. Bacon.
•Marin Mersenne (1588-1648) and his circle.
•The Royal Society 1662.
•The French Academy of Sciences 1666.
•Journals: Journal des savants (1665); Philosophical transactions of the Royal Society (1665); Acta
eruditorum (Leipzig 1682; Leibniz one of main contributors).
Thomas Sprat’s History of the Royal Society; he became Bishop of Rochester in 1684
Intellectual Revolution
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British empiricism; Continental rationalism.
Sir Francis Bacon (1561-1626; Baron Verulam and Viscount St Albans); son of Lord Chancellor; trained
for law and administration; knighted 1603; Attorney General 1613; Lord Chancellor 1618; impeached in
1621 (over monopolies).
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Works: Essays (1597; revised and expanded to 1625).
Bacon: Writings
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Works: projected Instauratio Magna, surveying the whole of science; completed only:
The Advancement of Learning 1605 (revised Latin version De augmentis scientiarum 1623), and
Novum Organum (in Latin; 1620).
He also wrote many works on law, history, religion, etc.
Sir Francis Bacon
Bacon: Empiricism and induction
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The ancient and scholastics were ignorant of a great deal about nature and science.
By observation and experiment, we can find vast amounts of new truths about nature, which can be
used vastly to improve human life.
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The state should help co-ordinate scientific efforts.
The church and religion should be kept out of science.
Bacon: Empiricism and induction
•Religion is a matter of faith/ belief, not knowledge; fideism.
•Scholastics/ Aristotelians argued by syllogisms, using deduction to draw conclusions from self-evident
first principles.
•Bacon argued that deduction produces no new knowledge; the proper scientific method is induction
of general laws from observation and experiment; rejected teleology.
•He de-emphasized mathematics, rejected Copernicanism, and was unaware of Gilbert and Harvey.
René Descartes and Cartesianism
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René Descartes (1596-1650)
Often seen as the founder of modern philosophy.
Did important work in mathematics (pioneered co-ordinate geometry), optics, and other areas of
science.
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From a French minor noble family; educated by Jesuits and then at the University of Poitiers.
Descartes
René Descartes
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Descartes: biography:
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1617: went to the Netherlands and joined the army of Maurice of Nassau.
1619: joined the army of Maximilian of Bavaria (was at the battle of the White Mountain in 1620).
1619: while stationed in Germany, he had dreams/ visions that persuaded him to follow a career in
philosophy, and gave him the cantral ideas of his later thinking.
Descartes
•1622: moved back to France;
•1623: sold the property he inherited and from then on lived off investment income.
•1628-49: in the Dutch Republic.
•1633: he abandons plan to publish his treatise Du Monde when Galileo is condemned.
•1635: had a daughter (Francine) with a domestic servant (Helena Jans van der Strom); Francine died in
1640.
•1649: went to Sweden at invitation of Queen Christina.
Descartes
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Main works: 1637 Discours de la méthode de bien conduire sa raison, et chercher la vérité dans les
sciences (Discourse on the method of conducting your reason, and seeking truth in the sciences).
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1641: Meditationes de prima philosophia.
1644: Principia philosophiae.
1649: Les passions de l’âme (The passions of the soul).
Descartes' teachings: Cartesianism
•All physical things act according to the same laws; for example, the laws of optics are dependent on
the laws of mechanics, since light is reducible to small particles.
•Physical phenomena can be explained in terms of (combinations of) clear and simple laws; these laws
involve no occult powers (in contrast to Aristotelianism, and also to Newtonianism, which centers on
gravity).
•Some Newtonians thought their views more easily compatible (than Cartesianism) with orthodox
ideas about God.
Cartesianism
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The mechanical philosophy.
Secondary qualities in our perception, not in objects (which consist only of shape, size, weight, and
motion).
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The universe is not what it seems, but what scientists measure it as being.
The universe is a physical continuum, with different parts in different motions.
God (like a clockmaker) started it. He also sustains it.
Cartesianism
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Skepticism; Cartesian doubt; cogito ergo sum (the “cogito”); the hypothesis of the evil demon.
Clear and distinct ideas are true; God’s existence can be proved (design; first mover, etc.); God would
not permit an evil demon to deceive us.
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The external world, as measured and described by scientists, does exist.
Cartesianism
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Cartesian dualism: the thinking “I” is not reducible to matter; minds and souls are immaterial
Minds have free will; bodies behave according to deterministic laws.
How are minds and bodies connected?: the pineal gland; occasionalism; Arnold Guelincx (1624-69).
Reasoning ability more important than observation in science.
Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679)
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Plan for a three volume work on the whole of philosophy: De Corpore (1655); De Homine (1658); De
Cive (1642; 1647).
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Mathematics; squaring the circle. Geometry.
Materialism; determinism (so why write Leviathan etc?). Nominalism. Anti-clericalism. Biblical
criticism.
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What are souls, spirits, God? (First cause; gas).
To say that God spoke to you in a dream is to say you dreamed God spoke to you; revelation
unreliable.
Baruch/ Benedict de Spinoza (1632-77)
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Spinoza was born into the Jewish community in Amsterdam, but excommunicated from it in 1656.
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He made his living by grinding lenses, and this may have caused the lung disease from which he died.
Works: Principia philosophiae cartesianae 1663.
Spinoza
Spinoza
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Works: Tractatus Theologico-Politicus 1670. Tractatus Politicus 1677 (incomplete); Ethica ordine
geometrico demonstrata (1677).
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Descartes argued that material universe was one continuous entity, with no vacuums separating
different parts; but that there were many minds.
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Spinoza claimed that the universe was a single thinking and material substance, which was at once
God and nature.
Spinoza
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All is determined; people lack free will, but can attain a kind of freedom by controlling emotions, and
using reason to escape from irrational fears.
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The bible is full of contradictions and errors, and much of it should not be taken literally.
Spinoza’s ideas were commonly seen as strange and atheistical.
Leibniz
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Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1643-1716)
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Son of a Lutheran professor of moral philosophy at Leipzig; diplomat and advisor to Catholic
Archbishop of Mainz 1666-73; advisor, librarian and historian to the Duke of Brunswick (Elector of
Hanover from 1692).
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Achievements: calculus; many published and manuscript works on law, politics, mathematics, and
science; monads; optimism.
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Main works: Theodicy (1710); Monadology (1714)
Leibniz
Locke
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John Locke (1632-1704).
Oxford academic; physician and secretary to the Earl of Shaftesbury; fellow of the royal society 1668;
Whig; economic thinker; colonial interests.
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Essay concerning Humane Understanding 1690; empiricism; no innate ideas; under-labourer theory of
philosophy.
Locke
Deism, skepticism, and anticlericalism
•Decline of clergy’s power, and hold on education; Gallicanism; in France lay courts take control of
marriage law.
•Deism: idea of God as a clockmaker who created the universe but now leaves it to run on its own;
decline of ideas of Providence and Hell.
•Biblical criticism: Hobbes, Spinoza; Pentateuch; Richard Simon (Catholic priest; author of Histoire
critique du vieux testament; suppressed in France in 1670s; published in Holland 1685.
•Pierre Bayle (1647-1706): tolerant skepticism.
•Idea of a society of virtuous atheists: Bayle and Jansenists.