Touch
... System of receptors located in the muscles and joints that provides information about the location of the extremities. Sense receptors located in the joints and muscles send information to the brain concerning muscle tension and joint perception: determine location of limbs. Receptors connect ...
... System of receptors located in the muscles and joints that provides information about the location of the extremities. Sense receptors located in the joints and muscles send information to the brain concerning muscle tension and joint perception: determine location of limbs. Receptors connect ...
PPT - gserianne.com
... • hormone (first messenger) binds to receptor on cell membrane • adenylate cyclase activated • ATP converted to cAMP • cAMP (second messenger) promotes a series of reactions leading to cellular changes ...
... • hormone (first messenger) binds to receptor on cell membrane • adenylate cyclase activated • ATP converted to cAMP • cAMP (second messenger) promotes a series of reactions leading to cellular changes ...
① Pulmonary Respiratory System
... The main function of the lungs is theexchange of gas that occurs within microscopic air sacs called alveoli. However, the upper respiratory tract (nose, mouth, trachea) has important functions that adds water vapor (H2O) to inspired air, warming it to body temperature, and trapping particulate mater ...
... The main function of the lungs is theexchange of gas that occurs within microscopic air sacs called alveoli. However, the upper respiratory tract (nose, mouth, trachea) has important functions that adds water vapor (H2O) to inspired air, warming it to body temperature, and trapping particulate mater ...
Respiratory Physiology Part I
... • Stretching force, ability to return to normal length or volume • Helps with expiration ...
... • Stretching force, ability to return to normal length or volume • Helps with expiration ...
Hyaluronic Acid in Ear, Nose and Throat (ENT) Hyaluronic acid and
... respiratory airways. As a result of this distribution, hyaluronic acid has a central role to play in respiratory physiology, and is involved in many homeostatic mechanisms. Hyaluronic acid administered via inhaler penetrates rapidly and becomes integrated in the pulmonary interstice, preventing diff ...
... respiratory airways. As a result of this distribution, hyaluronic acid has a central role to play in respiratory physiology, and is involved in many homeostatic mechanisms. Hyaluronic acid administered via inhaler penetrates rapidly and becomes integrated in the pulmonary interstice, preventing diff ...
Respiration Notes
... terminal bronchiole delivers air to a single pulmonary lobule. Within the lobule, the terminal bronchiole branches into respiratory bronchioles. ...
... terminal bronchiole delivers air to a single pulmonary lobule. Within the lobule, the terminal bronchiole branches into respiratory bronchioles. ...
Genesis and General Characteristics of WBCs
... Monocytes account for 4–8% of leukocytes They are the largest leukocytes They have abundant pale-blue cytoplasms They have purple-staining, U- or kidneyshaped nuclei They leave the circulation, enter tissue, and differentiate into macrophages Macrophages: Are highly mobile and actively ...
... Monocytes account for 4–8% of leukocytes They are the largest leukocytes They have abundant pale-blue cytoplasms They have purple-staining, U- or kidneyshaped nuclei They leave the circulation, enter tissue, and differentiate into macrophages Macrophages: Are highly mobile and actively ...
Physiology (GRPS-101) Practical notes Freshmen 2011
... Parts of the Lower Respiratory Tract Trachea: Also known as the windpipe this is the tube which carries air from the throat into the lungs. Bronchi: The trachea divides into two tubes called bronchi, one entering the left and one entering the right lung. Once inside the lung the bronchi split se ...
... Parts of the Lower Respiratory Tract Trachea: Also known as the windpipe this is the tube which carries air from the throat into the lungs. Bronchi: The trachea divides into two tubes called bronchi, one entering the left and one entering the right lung. Once inside the lung the bronchi split se ...
Cells : The Living Units
... integral protein membrane pores – Channels: proteins allow ions (Aquaporins), as well as or water through aqueous through the bilayer by moving channels from gap to gap ...
... integral protein membrane pores – Channels: proteins allow ions (Aquaporins), as well as or water through aqueous through the bilayer by moving channels from gap to gap ...
endocrine system - Solon City Schools
... Foreign molecules that interrupt normal function of a hormone pathway • DDT (pesticide) • BPA (found in plastic) • PCB (industrial chemical) ...
... Foreign molecules that interrupt normal function of a hormone pathway • DDT (pesticide) • BPA (found in plastic) • PCB (industrial chemical) ...
Abstract
... hyperglycaemia is a complex condition involving altered insulin sensitivity and beta cell function. However little is known about the potential roles in sepsis-induced hyperglycaemia of other major modulators of glucose homeostasis the incretins, glucosedependent insulinotropic polypeptide (GIP) and ...
... hyperglycaemia is a complex condition involving altered insulin sensitivity and beta cell function. However little is known about the potential roles in sepsis-induced hyperglycaemia of other major modulators of glucose homeostasis the incretins, glucosedependent insulinotropic polypeptide (GIP) and ...
The Respiratory System
... Tubelike structure leading from the larynx to bronchial tree Consists of smooth muscle and “C” shaped hyaline cartilage rings Lined with psuedostratified ciliated columnar epithelium Mucociliary escalator ...
... Tubelike structure leading from the larynx to bronchial tree Consists of smooth muscle and “C” shaped hyaline cartilage rings Lined with psuedostratified ciliated columnar epithelium Mucociliary escalator ...
Dear Notetaker:
... - Normal is 80% - Forceful expiration test Pathogenesis - Imbalance with protease and anti protease - Cigarettes draws in macrophages, release proteases - ROS break down normal anti proteases - Proteases are more prominent than anti proteases - Break down of elastic tissue in alveoli, drastically re ...
... - Normal is 80% - Forceful expiration test Pathogenesis - Imbalance with protease and anti protease - Cigarettes draws in macrophages, release proteases - ROS break down normal anti proteases - Proteases are more prominent than anti proteases - Break down of elastic tissue in alveoli, drastically re ...
Functions Structural Plan
... organization of cells into tissues, and tissues into organs. The structure and function of organs determine their relationships within body systems of an organism. Homeostasis allows the body to perform its normal functions. 4.3 Explain how the system (nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, lungs, alveoli) ...
... organization of cells into tissues, and tissues into organs. The structure and function of organs determine their relationships within body systems of an organism. Homeostasis allows the body to perform its normal functions. 4.3 Explain how the system (nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, lungs, alveoli) ...
Tyrosine Kinases
... resulting change in its structure that activates the protein connected to the tyrosine with the phosphate. Each activated protein triggers a pathway for transduction, causing a cellular response. One type of receptor tyrosine kinase is required for the survival and proliferation of migrating myoblas ...
... resulting change in its structure that activates the protein connected to the tyrosine with the phosphate. Each activated protein triggers a pathway for transduction, causing a cellular response. One type of receptor tyrosine kinase is required for the survival and proliferation of migrating myoblas ...
UNIVERSITY OF MALTA
... inherited, or infectious forms, all of which involve conversion of the normal cellular prion protein (PrPC) into a pathogenic likeness of itself (PrPSc). Formation of neurotoxic PrPSc and/or loss of the normal function of native PrPC result in activation of cellular pathways ultimately leading to ne ...
... inherited, or infectious forms, all of which involve conversion of the normal cellular prion protein (PrPC) into a pathogenic likeness of itself (PrPSc). Formation of neurotoxic PrPSc and/or loss of the normal function of native PrPC result in activation of cellular pathways ultimately leading to ne ...
Alveolar macrophage
An alveolar macrophage (or dust cell) is a type of macrophage found in the pulmonary alveolus, near the pneumocytes, but separated from the wall.Activity of the alveolar macrophage is relatively high, because they are located at one of the major boundaries between the body and the outside world.Dust cells are another name for monocyte derivatives in the lungs that reside on respiratory surfaces and clean off particles such as dust or microorganisms.Alveolar macrophages are frequently seen to contain granules of exogenous material such as particulate carbon that they have picked up from respiratory surfaces. Such black granules may be especially common in smoker's lungs or long-term city dwellers.Inhaled air may contain particles or organisms which would be pathogenic. The respiratory pathway is a prime site for exposure to pathogens and toxic substances. The respiratory tree, comprising the larynx, trachea, and bronchioles, is lined by ciliated epithelia cells that are continually exposed to harmful matter. When these offensive agents infiltrate the superficial barriers, the body's immune system responds in an orchestrated defense involving a litany of specialized cells which target the threat, neutralize it, and clean up the remnants of the battle. Deep within the lungs exists its constituent alveoli sacs, the sites responsible for the uptake of oxygen and excretion of carbon dioxide. There are three major alveolar cell types in the alveolar wall (pneumocytes): Type I pneumocyte (Squamous Alveolar) cells that form the structure of an alveolar wall. Type II pneumocyte (Great Alveolar) cells that secrete pulmonary surfactant to lower the surface tension of water and allows the membrane to separate, thereby increasing the capability to exchange gases. Surfactant is continuously released by exocytosis. It forms an underlying aqueous protein-containing hypophase and an overlying phospholipid film composed primarily of dipalmitoyl phosphatidylcholine. Macrophages that destroy foreign material, such as bacteria.Type 1 and type 2 pneumocytes. Type 1 pneumocytes (or membranous pneumocytes) form the structure of the alveolus and are responsible for the gas exchange in the alveolus. Type 1 pneumocytes are squamous epithelial cells which are characterized by a superficial layer consisting of large, thin, scale-like cells; they also cover 95% of the alveolar surface, although they are only half as numerous as Type 2 pneumocytes. Type 2 pneumocytes are important in that they can proliferate and differentiate into type 1 pneumocytes, which cannot replicate and are susceptible to a vast numbers of toxic insults. Type 2 pneumocytes are also important because they secrete pulmonary surfactant(PS), which consists 80-90% of phospholipids [(phosophatidylcholine(PC), phosphatidyglycerol(PG), phosphaditylinositol (PI)] and 5-10% of surfactant proteins (SP-A, SP-B, SP-C, AND SP-D). PS is synthesized as lamellar bodies, which are structures consisting of closely packed bilayers that are secreted and then undergo transformation into a morphological form called tubular myelin. PS plays an important role in maintaining normal respiratory mechanics by reducing alveolar surface tension. By lowering alveolar surface tension, PS reduces the energy required to inflate the lungs, and reduces the likelihood of alveolar collapse during expiration. Loosely attached to these alveoli sacs are the alveolar macrophages that protect the lungs from a broad array of microbes and aerosols by devouring and ingesting them through phagocytosis.Alveolar macrophages are phagocytes that play a critical role in homeostasis, host defense, the response to foreign substances, and tissue remodeling. Since alveolar macrophages are pivotal regulators of local immunological homeostasis, their population density is decisive for the many processes of immunity in the lungs. They are highly adaptive components of the innate immune system and can be specifically modified to whatever functions needed depending on their state of differentiation and micro-environmental factors encountered. Alveolar macrophages release numerous secretory products and interact with other cells and molecules through the expression of several surface receptors. Alveolar macrophages are also involved in the phagocytosis of apoptotic and necrotic cells that have undergone cell-death. They must be selective of the material that is phagocytized because normal cells and structures of the body must not be compromised. To combat infection, the phagocytes of the innate immune system facilitates many pattern recognition receptors (PRR) to help recognize pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) on the surface of pathogenic microorganisms. PAMPs all have the common features of being unique to a group of pathogens but invariant in their basic structure; and are essential for pathogenicity(ability of an organism to produce an infectious disease in another organism). Proteins involved in microbial pattern recognition include mannose receptor, complement receptors, DC-SIGN,Toll-like receptors(TLRs), the scavenger receptor, CD14, and Mac-1. PRRs can be divided into three classes:signaling PRRs that activate gene transcriptional mechanisms that lead to cellular activation,endocytic PRRs that function in pathogen binding and phagocytosis, andsecreted PRRs that usually function as opsonins or activators of complement.The recognition and clearance of invading microorganisms occurs through both opsonin-dependent and opsonin–independent pathways. The molecular mechanisms facilitating opsonin-dependent phagocytosis are different for specific opsonin/receptor pairs. For example, phagocytosis of IgG-opsonized pathogens occurs through the Fcγ receptors (FcγR), and involves phagocyte extensions around the microbe, resulting in the production of pro-inflammatory mediators. Conversely, complement receptor-mediated pathogen ingestion occurs without observable membrane extensions (particles just sink into the cell) and does not generally results in an inflammatory mediator response. Following internalization, the microbe is enclosed in a vesicular phagosome which then undergoes fusion with primary or secondary lysosomes, forming a phagolysosome. There are various mechanisms that lead to intracellular killing; there are oxidative processes, and others independent of the oxidative metabolism. The former involves the activation of membrane enzyme systems that lead to a stimulation of oxygen uptake (known as the respiratory burst), and its reduction to reactive oxygen intermediates (ROIs), molecular species that are highly toxic for microorganisms. The enzyme responsible for the elicitation of the respiratory burst is known as nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) oxidase, which is composed of five subunits. One component is a membrane cytochrome made up of two protein subunits, gp91phox and p22phox; the remaining three components are cytosolic-derived proteins: p40phox, p47phox, and p67phox. NADPH oxidase exists in the cytosol of the AM when in a quiescent state; but upon activation, two of its cytosolic components, p47phox and p67phox, have their tyrosine and serine residues phosphorylated, which are then able to mediate translocation of NADPHox to the cytochrome component, gp91phox/p22phox, on the plasma membrane via cytoskeletal elements.Compared to other phagocytes, the respiratory burst in AM is of a greater magnitude. Oxygen-independent microbicidal mechanisms are based on the production of acid, on the secretion of lysozymes, on iron-binding proteins, and on the synthesis of toxic cationic polypeptides. Macrophages possess a repertoire of antimicrobial molecules packaged within their granules and lysosomes. These organelles contain a plethora of degradative enzymes and antimicrobial peptides that are released into the phagolysosome, such as proteases, nucleases, phosphatases, esterases, lipases, and highly basic peptides. Moreover, macrophages possess a number of nutrient deprivation mechanisms that are used to starve phagocytosed pathogens of essential micronutrients. Certain microorganisms have evolved countermeasures which enable them to evade being destroyed by phagocytes. Although lysosomal-mediated degradation is an efficient means by which to neutralize an infection and prevent colonization, several pathogens parasitize macrophages, exploiting them as a host cell for growth, maintenance and replication. Parasites like Toxoplasma gondii and mycobacteria are able to prevent fusion of phagosomes with lysosomes, thus escaping the harmful action of lysosomal hydrolases. Others avoid lysosomes by leaving the phagocytic vacuole, to reach the cytosolic matrix where their development is unhindered. In these instances, macrophages may be triggered to actively destroy phagocytosed microorganisms by producing a number of highly toxic molecules and inducing deprivational mechanism to starve it. Finally, some microbes have enzymes to detoxify oxygen metabolites formed during the respiratory burst.When insufficient to ward off the threat, alveolar macrophages can release proinflammatory cytokines and chemokines to call forth a highly developed network of defensive phagocytic cells responsible for the adaptive immune response. The lungs are especially sensitive and prone to damage, thus to avoid collateral damage to type 1 and type II pneumocytes, alveolar macrophages are kept in a quiescent state, producing little inflammatory cytokines and displaying little phagocytic activity, as evidenced by downregulated expression of the phagocytic receptor Macrophage 1 antigen (Mac-1). AMs actively suppress the induction of two of the immunity systems of the body: the adaptive immunity and humoral immunity. The adaptive immunity is suppressed through AM’s effects on interstitial dendritic cells, B-cells and T-cells, as these cells are less selective of what they destroy, and often cause unnecessary damage to normal cells. To prevent uncontrolled inflammation in the lower respiratory tract, alveolar macrophages secrete nitric oxide, prostaglandins, interleukin-4 and -10(IL-4, IL-10), and transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β).