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Resistors Connected in Series and in Parallel
Resistors Connected in Series and in Parallel

... If a battery with voltage V is placed across resistors connected in parallel, the battery “sees” a single equivalent resistance R placed across its terminals. To find this equivalent resistance note we need Kirchhoff’s junction rule: ...
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... • Along with resistors and inductors, they are one of the most fundamental passive components we use. • What makes capacitors special is their ability to store energy; they’re like a fully charged electric battery. • Measured in farads – unit of electrical capacitance (the ability of a body to store ...
Model Answer
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... is a balanced Y in parallel with a balanced ∆. The phase impedance of the Y is 4 + j 3 Ω / ϕ and the phase impedance of the ∆ is 3 – j 9 Ω / ϕ. The line impedance is 1.4 + j 0.8 Ω / ϕ. Draw the single phase equivalent circuit and use it to calculate the line voltage at the load in the a-phase. ...
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... highly inductive, the X/R ratio is generally significantly above unity in any utility or industrial power system. Why is the X/R ratio important? Its importance is that it affects the level of short circuit current a circuit breaker is required to interrupt. When a short circuit occurs, the rms valu ...
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...  Consider changing the output code of a 8-bit D/A from 10000000 to 01111111. These code are adjacent, and we expect the output to go from one-half full-scale to one resolution value less than that. However, if the switches can switch faster from a one to a zero, the output code will go through a tr ...
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... The All-American-Five has no transformer isolation from the AC power line. The electrical common connection in the radio, which connects to the metal chassis, is connected to one side of the AC line cord. The power cord on the AA5 is not polarized – it can be plugged into an AC outlet in two differe ...
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Resistive opto-isolator



Resistive opto-isolator (RO), also called photoresistive opto-isolator, vactrol (after a genericized trademark introduced by Vactec, Inc. in the 1960s), analog opto-isolator or lamp-coupled photocell, is an optoelectronic device consisting of a source and detector of light, which are optically coupled and electrically isolated from each other. The light source is usually a light-emitting diode (LED), a miniature incandescent lamp, or sometimes a neon lamp, whereas the detector is a semiconductor-based photoresistor made of cadmium selenide (CdSe) or cadmium sulfide (CdS). The source and detector are coupled through a transparent glue or through the air.Electrically, RO is a resistance controlled by the current flowing through the light source. In the dark state, the resistance typically exceeds a few MOhm; when illuminated, it decreases as the inverse of the light intensity. In contrast to the photodiode and phototransistor, the photoresistor can operate in both the AC and DC circuits and have a voltage of several hundred volts across it. The harmonic distortions of the output current by the RO are typically within 0.1% at voltages below 0.5 V.RO is the first and the slowest opto-isolator: its switching time exceeds 1 ms, and for the lamp-based models can reach hundreds of milliseconds. Parasitic capacitance limits the frequency range of the photoresistor by ultrasonic frequencies. Cadmium-based photoresistors exhibit a ""memory effect"": their resistance depends on the illumination history; it also drifts during the illumination and stabilizes within hours, or even weeks for high-sensitivity models. Heating induces irreversible degradation of ROs, whereas cooling to below −25 °C dramatically increases the response time. Therefore, ROs were mostly replaced in the 1970s by the faster and more stable photodiodes and photoresistors. ROs are still used in some sound equipment, guitar amplifiers and analog synthesizers owing to their good electrical isolation, low signal distortion and ease of circuit design.
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