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Plane wave propagation in lossy medium
Plane wave propagation in lossy medium

Theory for an order-driven disruption of the liquid state in water
Theory for an order-driven disruption of the liquid state in water

... ground state to be in by lowering its energy of interaction with the applied field. The grand potential per site of the liquid phase should be given by ␻ᐉ = −q⑀ / 2 − ␮, while for the aligned phase ␻a = −log关1 + e␮+␥兴. Setting these two quantities equal gives the critical field at which the first-or ...
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Chapter 20: Particle Kinetics of Plasma [version 1220.1.K]

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View PDF - CiteSeerX

... usual interpretive axioms of quantum mechanics come into play only when the system interacts with something else, is ‘observed’. For the universe there is nothing else, and quantum mechanics in its traditional form has simply nothing else to say. It gives no way of, indeed no meaning of, picking out ...
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Maxwell`s Original Equations - The General Science Journal

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Evolution of the Atomic Concept and the Beginnings of Modern

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1 ad All physics to date has led to one primary conclusion: There are

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... Step 2 Align one side of the equilateral triangle with one side of the equilateral triangle on the second sheet. Trace the triangle so that the two copies of the triangle are now on one of the patty papers. Step 3 Continue tracing the triangles in this manner filing the paper with tessellations of e ...
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The Guiding Center Approximation to Charged Particle Motion

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Introduction to gauge theory

A gauge theory is a type of theory in physics. Modern theories describe physical forces in terms of fields, e.g., the electromagnetic field, the gravitational field, and fields that describe forces between the elementary particles. A general feature of these field theories is that the fundamental fields cannot be directly measured; however, some associated quantities can be measured, such as charges, energies, and velocities. In field theories, different configurations of the unobservable fields can result in identical observable quantities. A transformation from one such field configuration to another is called a gauge transformation; the lack of change in the measurable quantities, despite the field being transformed, is a property called gauge invariance. Since any kind of invariance under a field transformation is considered a symmetry, gauge invariance is sometimes called gauge symmetry. Generally, any theory that has the property of gauge invariance is considered a gauge theory. For example, in electromagnetism the electric and magnetic fields, E and B, are observable, while the potentials V (""voltage"") and A (the vector potential) are not. Under a gauge transformation in which a constant is added to V, no observable change occurs in E or B.With the advent of quantum mechanics in the 1920s, and with successive advances in quantum field theory, the importance of gauge transformations has steadily grown. Gauge theories constrain the laws of physics, because all the changes induced by a gauge transformation have to cancel each other out when written in terms of observable quantities. Over the course of the 20th century, physicists gradually realized that all forces (fundamental interactions) arise from the constraints imposed by local gauge symmetries, in which case the transformations vary from point to point in space and time. Perturbative quantum field theory (usually employed for scattering theory) describes forces in terms of force-mediating particles called gauge bosons. The nature of these particles is determined by the nature of the gauge transformations. The culmination of these efforts is the Standard Model, a quantum field theory that accurately predicts all of the fundamental interactions except gravity.
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