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Relativistic Néel-Order Fields Induced by Electrical Current in
Relativistic Néel-Order Fields Induced by Electrical Current in

... Commercial spin-based memory and storage devices rely on one type of magnetic order, ferromagnetism, and one basic principle, that the opposite spin orientations in a ferromagnet (FM) represent the 0 s and 1 s [1]. Magnetic random access memory (MRAM) is a solid-state-memory variant of the hard disk ...
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... order of magnitude of its mass4, the effects from the vacuum particle’s charges are dominant in the process of the rearrangement. With this fact, it can be explained why gravitational interaction is attractive. In the gravitational interaction between two massive objects, vacuum particle’s charge d ...
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Chapter 12
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... field will experience an electrostatic force in the direction of the electric field.  An external force F, equal in magnitude to the electrostatic force qE, will move the charge q a distance d in the uniform field. The external force does work on the charge and increases the potential energy of th ...
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... other when they first interact at about 500 fs. Under the influence of the external electric field, they move towards each other a second time and interact again at about 900 fs. This time they recombine in a way very similar to the process described above. If the on-site Coulomb interaction U0 incr ...
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Introduction to gauge theory

A gauge theory is a type of theory in physics. Modern theories describe physical forces in terms of fields, e.g., the electromagnetic field, the gravitational field, and fields that describe forces between the elementary particles. A general feature of these field theories is that the fundamental fields cannot be directly measured; however, some associated quantities can be measured, such as charges, energies, and velocities. In field theories, different configurations of the unobservable fields can result in identical observable quantities. A transformation from one such field configuration to another is called a gauge transformation; the lack of change in the measurable quantities, despite the field being transformed, is a property called gauge invariance. Since any kind of invariance under a field transformation is considered a symmetry, gauge invariance is sometimes called gauge symmetry. Generally, any theory that has the property of gauge invariance is considered a gauge theory. For example, in electromagnetism the electric and magnetic fields, E and B, are observable, while the potentials V (""voltage"") and A (the vector potential) are not. Under a gauge transformation in which a constant is added to V, no observable change occurs in E or B.With the advent of quantum mechanics in the 1920s, and with successive advances in quantum field theory, the importance of gauge transformations has steadily grown. Gauge theories constrain the laws of physics, because all the changes induced by a gauge transformation have to cancel each other out when written in terms of observable quantities. Over the course of the 20th century, physicists gradually realized that all forces (fundamental interactions) arise from the constraints imposed by local gauge symmetries, in which case the transformations vary from point to point in space and time. Perturbative quantum field theory (usually employed for scattering theory) describes forces in terms of force-mediating particles called gauge bosons. The nature of these particles is determined by the nature of the gauge transformations. The culmination of these efforts is the Standard Model, a quantum field theory that accurately predicts all of the fundamental interactions except gravity.
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