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1. An electron situated near another electron would feel an attractive
1. An electron situated near another electron would feel an attractive

... 30. When you shuffle your feet on a carpet on a dry day, you can accumulate a charge. The fact that you accumulate a charge means that the carpet is → an insulator, because if it weren't, the charge would immediately leave you. an insulator, because only insulators can be charged by contact. a condu ...
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Hanle effect and electron spin polarization in temperature Linköping University Post Print

... temperature dependent. This contradicts the experimental fact that Ts is insensitive to temperature, which consequently rules out the possibility of a significant contribution of the trion decay in the spin lifetime determined from the Hanle curves.  is thus required to be much larger than Ts , suc ...
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... a black hole radiates, it loses mass, increasing its temperature, which increases the rate of radiation. If we wait long enough, by the Hawking process a black hole will continue radiating until all of its mass is radiated away and we are left with only thermal radiation. This leads to a problem: wh ...
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... (a) What is the distinction between the electrostatic potential energy of a charge q at some point r in an electric field E(r) and the electric potential at the same point? (b) The potential of a certain distribution of charges depends only on the distance r from a fixed reference point. If the pote ...
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Physics - Collegiate Quiz Bowl Packet
Physics - Collegiate Quiz Bowl Packet

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Introduction to gauge theory

A gauge theory is a type of theory in physics. Modern theories describe physical forces in terms of fields, e.g., the electromagnetic field, the gravitational field, and fields that describe forces between the elementary particles. A general feature of these field theories is that the fundamental fields cannot be directly measured; however, some associated quantities can be measured, such as charges, energies, and velocities. In field theories, different configurations of the unobservable fields can result in identical observable quantities. A transformation from one such field configuration to another is called a gauge transformation; the lack of change in the measurable quantities, despite the field being transformed, is a property called gauge invariance. Since any kind of invariance under a field transformation is considered a symmetry, gauge invariance is sometimes called gauge symmetry. Generally, any theory that has the property of gauge invariance is considered a gauge theory. For example, in electromagnetism the electric and magnetic fields, E and B, are observable, while the potentials V (""voltage"") and A (the vector potential) are not. Under a gauge transformation in which a constant is added to V, no observable change occurs in E or B.With the advent of quantum mechanics in the 1920s, and with successive advances in quantum field theory, the importance of gauge transformations has steadily grown. Gauge theories constrain the laws of physics, because all the changes induced by a gauge transformation have to cancel each other out when written in terms of observable quantities. Over the course of the 20th century, physicists gradually realized that all forces (fundamental interactions) arise from the constraints imposed by local gauge symmetries, in which case the transformations vary from point to point in space and time. Perturbative quantum field theory (usually employed for scattering theory) describes forces in terms of force-mediating particles called gauge bosons. The nature of these particles is determined by the nature of the gauge transformations. The culmination of these efforts is the Standard Model, a quantum field theory that accurately predicts all of the fundamental interactions except gravity.
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