Download Helpful Grammatical Facts and Examples

Helpful Grammatical Facts and Examples
Eight Parts of Speech
Nouns: a person, place, or thing
Pronouns: a word used in place of a noun. In
These should be memorized!
Adjectives: *modifies a noun or pronoun
Interjections: a word or group of words found
writing, it is important to define your noun before
using pronouns. It is also important to make sure to
use the proper pronoun for your subject and
antecedent.
at the start of a sentence to convey emotion. It is
usually set apart from a sentence by an exclamation
point but also a comma if the feeling isn't quite as
strong. Great! I can use grammar properly.
Verbs: tells of an action or state of being
Conjunctions: a word that joins words,
phrases, and clauses (and, but, or, and nor are most
common)
Adverbs: modifies verbs, adjectives, and other
Prepositions: used with a noun or pronoun,
adverbs (tells how, when, where, and to what
extent)
called its object, to show the relationship between
the noun or pronoun and some other word in the
sentence.
*a modifier is a word that modifies, or changes, the meaning of a word
Verbals
Gerund: a verb form used as a noun
example: Skating requires precise form.
Participle: a verb form used as an adjective
example: Smiling, Jan accepted the award.
Infinitive: verb form that usually appears
with the word to before it. To is called the sign
of the infinitive. Example: He wanted to run.
An adverb tells:
An Adjective tells:
how
when
which one
where
what kind
to what extent
how many
about a verb,
about a noun or
adjective, or adverb pronoun
Common
Words
Used
as
Prepositions
about
above
across
after
against
along
among
around
at
before
behind
below
beneath
beside
between
beyond
but (except)
by
concerning
down
during
except
for
from
in
inside
into
like
near
of
off
on
onto
out
outside
over
past
since
through
throughout
to
toward
under
until
up
upon
with
within
without
Forms
Subject
of
Object
Pronouns
Possessive
I
you
he, she, it
we
you
they
me
you
him, her, it
us
you
them
my, mine
your, yours
his, her, hers, its
our, ours
your, yours
their, theirs
*A pronoun must agree with its antecedent in number. Ex. The runners took their places.
Transitional Words and Phrases
Here is a list of some common transitional words and phrases:
at that time
certainly
in fact
on the other hand
also
even though
in other words
of course
although
finally
in the first place
since
all in all
first
lately
so far
after all
for instance
likewise
soon
afterward
for example
moreover
then
at last
furthermore
next
therefore
again
however
now
to summarize
besides
in conclusion
on the whole
though
*Transitions are tools used to make writing flow more smoothly from one sentence,
thought, or paragraph to another.
Double Negatives
A double negative can change the meaning of a sentence in unintended ways.
Wrong:
The student was unable to offer no reasons for his lateness. (Contains
two negatives: unable and no. Unable to offer no reasons suggests that
the student was able to offer some reasons, just the opposite of the
desired meaning.)
Right:
The student was unable to offer any reasons for his lateness.
Wrong:
Brian complained that his family didn't do nothing interesting during
vacations. (This suggests that Brian's family did something interesting
Right:
Brian complained that his family didn’t do anything interesting during
vacations.
Remember that words such as hardly, scarcely, and barely are negative.
Wrong:
Pat was so surprised that he was hardly able to say nothing at all. (If he
was hardly able to say nothing, then he was able to say something.
Again, this is the opposite of the desired meaning.
Right:
Pat was so surprised that he was hardly able to say anything at all.
Punctuation
End Marks:
 The period follows the statement in a declarative sentence.
Ex. I feel tired after a long trip.
 The question mark follows the question in an interrogative sentence.
Ex. Do you feel tired after a long trip?
 The exclamation point follows an exclamation or strong command.
Ex. I'm exhausted!
Get ready for that trip right now!
Use commas:
 after an introductory adverbial clause
Ex. Since you are an experienced swimmer, you can help the beginners.
If you have not studied, you will probably not do well on the test.
 after an introductory participial phrase
Ex. Bowing and smiling, the singer acknowledged the audience's applause.
Stumbling and falling, the explorer found his way out of the forest.
 after an introductory word or phrase, to set it off from the main part of the
sentence
Ex. After dinner, Leo usually takes a walk.
For example, this comma is needed to set off the introductory phrase.
 with an appositive (a word or words that restate or identify a noun or pronoun).
Ex. Tom's best friend, Tony, moved to a distant state.
Jason, Mr. Frank's eldest son, is a freshman in college.
 when independent clauses are joined by a conjunction.
Ex. Melissa did not want to enter the room yet, but her aunt was expecting
her.
Bill decided to ride to the game with his parents, and I went with my
friends.
 around clauses beginning with which. Which is used when the clause is optional,
or nonrestrictive.
Ex. The five o'clock train, which is usually on time, was late last Saturday.
The last game of the season, which I was hoping to attend, was canceled.
Note: Do not use commas around clauses beginning with that. That is
used when the clause is essential to the meaning of the sentence, or
restrictive.
Ex. The train that I usually take was late on Saturday.
The game that I wanted to attend was canceled.
 around conjunctive adverbs and transitional phrases when they interrupt a
sentence
Ex. This wallpaper, for example, would look perfect in the bedroom.
The red paint, however, is not appropriate.
 to separate words or phrases in series.
Ex. Toni, Sean, Phil, and Zena have formed a band.
The film has exciting events, breathtaking scenery, and impressive
special effects.
 before a quotation or dialogue.
Ex. Ben said, "I'll see you at the game this afternoon."
"Give me liberty or give me death," said Patrick Henry.
Note: Do not use a comma after a quote if there is a question mark or
exclamation point at the end. Ex. "What time does the game begin?" asked Ben.
 after a noun of direct address
Ex. Mother, please open the door at once.
 between items in addresses and dates. (but not before ZIP Codes)
Ex. John Adams was born on October 19, 1735, in Braintree, Massachusetts.
Glenn's address is 25 Elm Street, Malloy, OH 02457.
 after the greeting and after the closing in a friendly letter.
Ex. Dear Aunt Linda,
Your loving nephew,
Use a semicolon:
 to separate closely linked independent clauses when you don't want to
come to a full stop between them and they are not joined by a
conjunction.
Ex. Sharks had been sighted; no swimmers were allowed in the water.
But: Sharks had been sighted, and no swimmers were allowed in the water.

between independent clauses of a compound sentence when they are
joined by a conjunctive adverb such as however, moreover, therefore,
besides, and then.
Ex. I want to come to your party; however, I need a new outfit.
I drove five hours to see Mr. Jensen; therefore, he must see me now.

between items in a series if they are particularly long or if they
themselves contain commas.
Ex. The committee included the company president, Mr. Perelli; the
treasurer, Ms. Cantas; and the recording secretary, Mr. Franks.
The menu includes an appetizer containing mushrooms, garlic, and onions; a
main dish of leg of lamb, curried rice, and candied carrots; and a choice of
strawberry shortcake, ice cream, or rice pudding for dessert.
Use a colon:
 to introduce a word or phrase that explains or illustrates the preceding
word, phrase or sentence.
Ex. The 27th Regiment had its orders: to march to the next town and take it.
 to stress a word, phrase, or clause that follows.
Ex. There is only one reason for making such an error: stupidity.
 to introduce a series or list.
Ex. A successful dinner party needs three things: delicious food, pleasant
surroundings, and good companions.
 to replace a comma before a long quotation.
Ex. The car dealer said: "You won't go wrong with this car. It is almost new,
clean, runs well, and the previous owner always kept it well maintained. If you
hesitate, someone else will buy it soon, probably today."
 to separate the title of a book, magazine, article, or movie from the
subtitle.
Ex. Transformations: A Quarterly of New Literature
"How to Become a Winner: The Ten Secrets of Success"
 between the hour and minutes in writing the time. Ex. 9:15 pm
 after the greeting and closing of a business letter.
Ex. To Whom it May Concern:
Sincerely:
 to separate a heading or introductory label from the words that follow.
Ex. CAUTION: wet paint
NOTICE: Do not go beyond this point.
Use parentheses:
 around a word or group of words within a sentence that are extra or
explanatory. The sentence should be able to stand on its own and read as well
without the material in parentheses.
Ex. We visited several European countries (Spain, Italy, Germany) on our trip.
 to enclose a whole related sentence within a main sentence. Do not
capitalize the sentence in parentheses.
Ex. Your last report (see pages 10 and 12) contains several factual errors.
 to add a related sentence onto the end of a main sentence without
interrupting it.
Capitalize the first letter in this case and use an end mark.
Ex. Your last report contains several factual errors. (See pages 10 and 12.)
 to enclose birth and death dates.
Arthur Miller (1915-2005) wrote The Crucible in response to the McCarthy
hearings.
 around the abbreviation of an organization after its name.
Ex. National Organization for Women (NOW)
Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI)
Use quotation marks:
 to enclose direct (exact) quotations.
Ex. "You're out!" called the umpire as the runner slid home.
Mark Twain once said to the press when asked what he thought about
recent rumors regarding his death: "The rumors of my death have been
greatly exaggerated."
 around titles of articles, poems, songs, reports, short stories, and book chapters.
Ex. "How to Help your Team Win" is a great article in Sports Illustrated.
"The Road Not Taken" is a well-known poem by Robert Frost.
 to enclose a nickname given with a formal name.
Ex. Robert "Buck" Johnson is my father's cousin.
 to enclose a quotation within a quotation. Note: Use a single quotation mark for
the quotation within the double marks.
Ex. Tom said, "I heard someone scream 'Help!' and rushed to see what was the
matter."
Punctuation rules in conjunction with quotation marks.
1. The quotation mark is preceded by a comma when the quote comes midway or at the
end of the sentence. Ex. Pat whispered to the coach, "I am going to steal third."
2. When a quote comes at the beginning of a sentence, the comma goes after the quote
but inside the quotation marks. "I'm going to steal third," whispered Pat to the coach.
3. Put periods inside quotation marks, whether or not they are part of the quotation.
Ex. At their anniversary party, Mom and Dad sang their favorite song, "Forever."
4. Put question marks, exclamation points, and dashes inside quotation marks if they are
part of the quotation; outside quotation marks if they are not.
Ex. The philosopher asked, "Who has seen eternity?"
Did the philosopher say, "I have seen eternity"?
Homonyms/Homophones/Homographs



Homonym: One of two or more words spelled and pronounced alike, but
different in meaning (as cleave meaning "to cut" and cleave meaning "to
adhere" (coincidentally, also antonyms!))
Homophone: One of two or more words pronounced alike, but different in
meaning or spelling (as the words to, too, and two)
Homograph: One of two or more words spelled alike, but different in
meaning or pronunciation (as the bow of a ship, a bow and arrow)
In writing, students often confuse the above types of words and do not catch their errors
because the spellchecker on the computer acknowledges that it is a word. One should not
rely on the grammar check to catch errors either. Common mistakes with homophones
come from the following list.
Here: in this place, or at this point
Hear: to perceive with the ear
Your: possessive form of you
You're: contraction for you are
To: expressing motion towards
Too: in addition; also
Two: the sum of one plus one; a pair
There: in that place, or at that point
Their: possessive form of they
They're: contraction for they are
Its: possessive form of it
It's: contraction for it is
Where: at what place or point?
Wear: to carry clothes, and the like,
upon the person
Possessive versus Plural



You can change a noun into the possessive form in a very simple way. If the noun
is singular, such as doctor, you can make this possessive by adding an 's, forming
doctor's. If, however, there is more than one doctor having possession then you
just add the apostrophe: doctors'. If the singular noun ends in the letter s, you still
add the 's such as in the sentence: The class's assignments were sitting on the
teacher's desk.
You can make a noun plural simply by adding an -s or an -es. (Note: there are
irregular nouns such as child, mouse, etc. You may also have to drop a -y or -f
and substitute an -ies or a -ves.) Ex. friends, dishes, cities, thieves
When making abbreviations plural, you do not add an 's, you simply add the -s.
Ex. Brenna is learning her ABCs.
I was born in the 1970s.
However, you can make abbreviations possessive by adding an 's.
Ex. CBS's new show "Love Monkey" is on Tuesday nights.
Subject and Verb Agreement
Tense Consistency
A verb must agree in number with its subject. A verb tense establishes the time of
Ex. The choice of the judges was not wise.
action of a piece of writing. If the
Neither of us is ready to give our speech.
tense changes, the meaning of the
Everyone is his/her own worst critic.
work becomes confusing.