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Wilsey Spring 2007
Bio 211
A theory must be:
1. testable
2. falsifiable
3. measurable
4. reproducible
5. objective
Hypothesis – educated guess
Theory – broad explanation for
phenomena (more evidence)
Radiometric Dating – isotope half-life,
radioactive decay
Timeline of Life:
1. first prokaryotic cell
2. cyanobacteria - photosynthesis
3. endosymbiosis - eukaryotes
4. multicellular organisms
Biology – scientific study of life
Definition of Life:
1. organized structure
2. converts energy and material to
different forms
3. homeostasis
4. grow and reproduce
5. respond to stimuli
6. capacity to evolve
molecule->organelle->cell->tissue>organ->organism->population>community->ecosystem->biosphere
Domain-Kingdom-Phylum-Class-OrderFamily-Genus-Species
Taxonomy – name and classify based on
physical traits
Three Domains: Bacteria, Archaea,
Eukarya
Prokaryotes (bacteria and archaea)
1. no nucleus
2. no membrane-bound organelles
3. shapes: spherical, rod, spiral
4. gram + have more peptidoglycan
5. gram – have less peptidoglycan
6. aerobic or anaerobic
7. autotroph or heterotroph
8. carbon source: organic matter or
CO2
9. energy source: chemical or
sunlight
Mass Review
ARCHAEA
1. methanogens – produce methane
2. halophiles – live in high salt
environments
3. thermophiles – live in extreme heat
environments
BACTERIA
Involved in:
1. Nitrogen fixation
2. Decomposition
3. Pathogens
4. Digestion in animals
5. Antibiotics
Proteobacteria
Chlamydias
Spirochetes
Gram +
Cyanobacteria
PROTISTS
-Most diverse group
-Eukaryotic
Diplomonads
Euglinids
Alveolata
1. dinoflagellates
2. plasmodium
3. ciliates
Stramenopila
Rhodophyta
Chlorophyta
Mycetozoa
Amoeba
PLANTS
-eukaryotic and multicellular
-photosynthetic
-cell wall, chloroplasts
-alternation of generations [Figure 1]
-sporophyte 2n, gametophyte 1n
-gametophyte is dominant in simple plants
Plant Evolution
1. multicellular
2. vascular
3. seeds
4. flowers/fruits
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GYMNOSPERMS
Ginkgophyta
Coniferophyta
Cycadophyta
ANGIOSPERMS
Monocot
1. parallel veins
2. fibrous roots
3. flower in 3’s
4. 1 cotyledon
Dicot
1. net-like veins
2. taproot
3. flower in 4 or 5’s
4. 2 cotyledons
Double Fertilization
Flower Types – perfect vs imperfect
Coevolution (plants and animals)
1. pollinated by insects
2. flower become more attractive
3. animals eat fruits and seeds
4. seeds stick to/are eaten by animals
Flower Anatomy:
carpel (F)
-stigma
-style
-ovary
stamen (M)
-anther
-filament
Problems moving from water to land:
1. water transport
2. water loss
3. support
Mass Review
4. reproduction
5. environment fluctuations
6. high UV radiation
FUNGI
Concepts/Vocabulary:
1. eukaryotes
2. nearly all multicellular
3. closely related to animals
4. heterotrophs
5. saprobe
6. terrestrial
7. hyphae
8. mycelium
9. septa (aseptae)
10. chitin
11. sexual and asexual
12. plasmogamy
13. karyogamy
14. heterokaryotic cell
15. imperfect fungi
Function as:
1. decomposers
2. spoilers
3. pathogens
4. food
Zygomycota
Ascomycota
Basidiomycota
ANIMALS
Definition:
1. multicellular, eukaryotic
2. ingestive heterotroph
3. no cell wall
4. nervous and muscle tissue
5. reproduce sexually (most)
6. embryonic development controlled
by hox genes
Taxonomic Characterisitcs
1. presence/absence of tissues
2. symmetry (none, radial, bilateral)
3. embryonic development
Germ Layers
1. ectoderm
2. mesoderm
3. endoderm
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Body Cavity
1. acoelomate
2. pseudocoelomate
3. coelomate
Embryonic Development
1. protostome – mouth first, spiral &
determinate cleavage
2. deuterostome – anus first, radial &
indeterminate cleavage
3. zygote -> 2,4,8-cell stage… ->
blastula -> gastrulation ->
gastrula
INVERTEBRATES
Parazoa:
Phylum Porifera
1. sessile
2. suspension feeders
3. hermaphrodites
4. regeneration
5. no true tissues
Eumetazoa, Radiata:
Phylum Cnidaria
1. simple muscles and nerves
2. sac with central digestive system
3. gastrovascular cavity
5. sessile polyp, floating medusa
6. coral reefs – where dinoflagellates
live
Eumetazoa, Bilateria, Protostome,
Lophotrochozoa:
Phylum Platyhelminthis
1. triploblastic
2. acoelomate
3. moderate cephalization
4. true muscle tissue
Phylum Rotifera
1. complete digestive tract
2. reproduce by parthenogenesis
Phylum Mollusca
1. marine
2. soft body, hard shell
3. foot, visceral mass, mantle
4. ventral nerve cord
Class Gastropoda
1.
torsion
Class Bivalva
Mass Review
Class Cephalopoda
-closed circulatory system
-well developed nervous system
Phylum Annelida
1. metanephridia
2. cerebral ganglia
3. coelom well developed
4. segmentation
Class Oligochaeta
Class Polychaeta
Class Hirudinea
Eumetazoa, Bilateria, Protostome,
Ecdysozoa:
Phylum Nematoda
Phylum Arthropoda
1. most successful phylum
2. head, thorax, abdomen
3. chiton exoskeleton
4. jointed appendages
5. dorsal heart
6. open circulatory system
7. ventral nerve cord
Clade Trilobita
Clade Chelicerata
Class Arachnida
-cephalothorax
-chelicerae
Clade Uniramia
Centipedes
Millipedes
Insects
-metamorphosis
-malpighian tubules
-highest diversity of any
animal group
Clade Crustacea
-2 pairs of antennae
Eumetazoa, Bilateria, Deuterostome:
Phylum Echinodermata
1. spiny skin
2. sessile or sedentary
3. radial symmetry as adults
4. endoskeleton
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VERTEBRATES
Eumetazoa, Bilateria, Deuterostome:
Phylum Chordata
1. notochord
2. dorsal, hollow, nerve cord
3. pharyngeal slits
4. muscular, post-anal tail
Eumetazoa, Bilateria, Deuterostome,
Phylum Chordata:
Agnatha
Gnathostomes
Class Chondrichthyes
Class Osteichthyes
Class Amphibia
Class Reptilia
1. amniotic egg
2. ectotherm
Class Mammalia
1. hair
2. endothermic
3. 4-chambered heart
4. mammary glands
5. mostly vivi parous
Orders of Mammals
Rodentia
Lagomorpha
Carnivora
Primates
CELL CYCLE
Interphase
-G1, S, G2, G0
Mitosis
1. Prophase
2. Prometaphase
3. Metaphase
4. Anaphase
5. Telophase
6. Cytokinesis
Checkpoints
1. G1
2. G2
3. M
Cancer Cells
- metastasis
Meiosis
1. Prophase I (tetrads)
Mass Review
2. Metaphase I
3. Anaphase I
4. Telophase I ( creates 2 cells)
5. Prophase II
6. Metaphase II
7. Anaphase II
8. Telophase II (creates 4 cells
GENETICS
1. model organisms
2. punnet square
3. dominant vs recessive
4. law of segregation
5. phenotype vs genotype
6. monohybrid vs dihybrid cross
7. incomplete dominance
8. ABO bloodtype
9. codominance
10. polygenic inheritance
11. recombination
12. sex chromosomes
13. barr body
Mutations
1. point mutation
2. nondisjunction
3. deletion
4. duplication
5. inversion
6. reciprocal translocation
EVOLUTION
=change in gene frequency over time
Theory of Evolution
1. explains life’s unity and diversity
2. natural selection as mechanism
3. all living things have evolved
4. changes are gradual
5. shaped by natural processes
Darwin’s Theory of Natural Selection
1. offspring look like parents
2. variation among individuals –
inherited
3. # of offspring correlates to parent’s
age
4. most fit individuals have most
offspring
5. favorable variations are more
common
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POPULATION GENETICS
1. evolutionary fitness = # of
offspring produced by an
individual in a lifetime
2. if fitness differs, population will
evolve
3. genotype frequencies
4. allele frequencies
5. Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium
p2+2pq+q2
Assumes:
1. very large population size
2. no migration
3. no mutation
4. no natural selection
5. random mating
SPECIATION
Biological Species
1. members successfully interbreed
Prezygotic Reproductive Barriers
2. habitat isolation
3. temporal isolation
4. behavioral isolation
5. mechanical isolation
6. gametic isolation
Postzygotic Reproductive Barriers
1. hybrid inviability
2. hybrid sterility
3. hybrid breakdown in F2
Key Terms:
1. allopatric speciation
2. sympatric speciation
3. introgression
4. adaptive radiation
5. anagensis
6. cladogenesis
7. macroevolution
8. allometric growth
ECOLOGY
1. organisms
2. population
3. community
4. ecosystem
5. biosphere
Terrestrial Biomes
1. Tundra
Mass Review
2. Coniferous Forest
3. Temperate Deciduous Forest
4. Temperate Grassland
5. Desert
6. Tropical Forest
7. Savanna
8. Chaparral
Aquatic Biomes
-Marine
1. pelagic
2. benthic
3. photic zone
4. aphotic zone
5. abyssal zone
6. intertidal zone
7. oceanic zone
-Freshwater
1. benthic
2. photic zone
3. aphotic zone (profundal)
4. littoral zone
5. limnetic zone
Stratification in Lakes
-spring and fall turnover
Wetlands
1. basin
2. riverine
3. fringe
4. marsh – no trees
5. swamp – trees
Brakish Biome (Estuary)
1. most productive aquatic biome
2. important for reproduction
POPULATION ECOLOGY
To estimate size:
N= (# marked x # in second
catch)/# recaptured
Density Dispersion
1. uniform
2. random
3. clumped (most common)
Exponential Equation
Logistic Equation
Density-Dependent Effects
1. proportional to population size
2. intraspecific interactions
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3. allee effect
4. emigration
5. spread of disease
Density-Independent Effects
1. weather
2. natural disasters
3. new predators
“r” selection
1. variable climate, disturbed areas
2. mortality independent of pop.
Density
3. high mortality rate for offspring
4. produce many offspring
5. little maternal care
6. reproduce at young age
7. small body size
“K” selection
1. constant climate
2. mortality density dependent
3. long life span
4. high mortality at old age
5. larger organisms
6. more responsive to K
7. mature slowly
8. more maternal care
Changes in Human Population
1. development of agriculture
2. medical revolution
COMMUNITY ECOLOGY
Coevolution – based on changes in fitness
Fitness – survival rate x reproductive rate
Interspecific Interactions
1. Competition
2. Predation
3. Herbivory
(Symbioses)
4. Parasitism
5. Mutualism
6. Commensalism
Intraspecific vs Interspecific vs
Asymmetrical Competition
Niche
1. where it lives
2. what it eats
3. when it eats
No two species can occupy the same niche
Mass Review
Fundamental niche – where organisms
could live
Realized niche – where an organism does
live
Reasons for high number of species
1. resource partitioning
2. keystone predators
3. disturbances
4. spatial variation in environment
Natural Selection favors:
1. passive defenses
2. active defenses
3. mimicry (Mullerian vs Batesian)
Succession
1. Primary (newly formed habitat)
2. Secondary
Biodiversity
1. richness = number of species
2. evenness = relative abundance
Geographic Distribution of Biodiversity
1. energy availability
2. habitat heterogeneity
3. niche specialization
4. intermediate disturbance
5. more species on larger “island”
6. more species closer to mainland
7. metapopulations
8. sources and sinks
9. extinction vortex
ECOSYSTEM ECOLOGY
1. study of energy flow
2. nutrient and water cycling
Energy Flow
1. primary production
2. primary consumption
3. secondary consumption
Laws of Thermodynamics
1. energy cannot be created/destroyed
2. entropy always increases
Food webs
1. herbivore
2. detritivore (no grazing)
Nutrient Cycling – inefficient
1. Nitrogen cycle
2. Water cycle
3. Carbon cycle
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