Download The major terrestrial or land-based ecosystems can be divided into

The major terrestrial or land-based ecosystems can be divided into smaller units called biomes. A biome is a large region
or area that has its own unique characteristics. These characteristics can include a range of climate, the ecological
communities adapted to the area, and the biotic and abiotic factors present.
Desert Characteristics
cover over one-third of Earth’s land masses.
Located between 15-28 degrees north and south of the equator
can be either hot or cold, but it is always very dry-gets less than 10 inches of rain a year
any rain that falls is quickly evaporated.
The Mojave Desert in California has summer temperatures of over 120˚Fahrenheit. The coldest place on Earth, Antarctica,
is also a desert with temperatures of -130˚. Atacama desert in Chile is the driest place on Earth
Plant adaptations for desert survival:
plants store water in their leaves, stems or roots. The stem of saguaro cactus can expands to store water
root systems can reach up to 100 ft below the ground or stretch out horizontally for great distances just below the surface.
To limit the loss of water plants have small leaves or none at all. Can drop their leaves when conditions become too
extreme for long periods of time.
Threats-desertification is causing an increase in the acreage of deserts-through wood gathering, overgrazing and global
warming. Atacama in Chile (rainis blocked by Andes) is the driest place on Earth
1/3 of Antartica is a desert
Animal adaptations for desert survival: Desert animals can survive with very little water, too. Some desert animals, like
the addax antelope, get their water from the plants and seeds they eat. Similarly, predators like snakes and owls get their
water from the animals they eat. The Gila monster stores water in the fatty tissues of its tail, while the spiny Australian
lizard simply absorbs moisture from the sand.
Desert temperatures also affect desert plants and animals. Many desert animals like lizards, kangaroo rats, and ground
squirrels avoid the high daytime temperatures by burrowing under the sand. Some like the Gila monster can stay in their
underground burrows for weeks. Others like the Fennec fox rest during the day and emerge during the cooler nighttime
temperatures to hunt. The black-tailed hare stays cool by relying on long appendages such as ears or legs to help radiate
heat out and away from its body.
Tropical Rainforest
located near the equator, (10 degrees north or south of the equator), where the climate is warm and humid and rainfall can
exceed 80 inches each year.
do not have a winter season
Greatest amount of biodiversity is found in the rainforest.
Seventy percent of the plants in a rain forest are trees.
Lost due to logging and conversion to farms
Over ¼ modern medicines originated here
Very shallow/poor soil
Plant Adaptations for the Rainforest
1. Trees in the top canopy of growth have small, pointed leaves because of their exposure to drying winds.
2. Lower leaves have drip tips, or grooved leaves that allow water to run off- prevents mold and mildew
3. Plants that are located closer to the forest floor tend to have large leaves in order to capture any sunlight that may filter
through the upper canopies.
4. Much of the minerals and organic nutrients are washed out of the soil by the constant rainfall. Many trees have
developed stilt-like roots that help to support them in the wet, shallow soil.
Animal Adaptations to the Rainforest
1. Prehensile tails that can grasp and hold on to tree limbs and vines
2. Bright colors that warn predators that they are deadly when eaten
3. Camouflaged body coverings to protect prey and hide predators in the shadowy under story
Temperate Forests
Deciduous forests have four distinct seasons with warm, wet summers and cold winters with fertile soils
Rainfall of between 30 and 60 inches support the growth of the forest’s plant and animal life.
Along Mediterranean Sea and the Eastern US
Timber use and conversion to non forest use is the greatest threat
Plant Adaptations to Temperate forests
1. Deciduous forests contain trees like maples, oaks, beech, and birch.
2. These trees grow well in the rich, fertile soil of the deciduous forest.
3. They also have broad leaves that capture the sunlight in the crowded canopy cover and thick barks that protect them
from cold winter temperatures.
4. loose leaves in cooler months to prevent water loss and protects against an excess accumulation of snow on the tree
branches.
5. Wildflowers on the forest floor grow and bloom in the early spring sunshine before the leaves of the trees begin to
produce too much shade.
Animal Adaptations to the Deciduous Forest
1. Many thrive on the nuts, berries, and seeds that are abundant in the deciduous forest.
2. Predators such as wolves, snakes, and hawks have a wide variety of smaller animals such as wood mice, squirrels,
and chipmunks to prey upon.
3. These animals are also adapted to the changing seasons. In the winter when food is scarce, some animals go into
hibernation to conserve their energy until the spring, while others migrate to warmer places where food is more plentiful.
Those animals that remain active during the winter months often survive on nuts and seeds that they stored in the hollows
of trees or buried under the forest floor during the warmer months.
4. In addition, many animals of the deciduous forest are camouflaged to blend in with the forest floor.
Boreal or Coniferous Forests
Made up almost entirely of evergreen trees such as pines and firs.
Also known as Coniferous, Taiga, or Boreal forests.
These trees do not lose their leaves in cold weather. Coniferous means the trees produce their seeds in cones.
Found in areas that have long, cold winters and short summers. Alaska-Canada to the Great Lakes, Siberia, Scandinavia
Receive about 20 inches of precipitation each year, usually snow.
Largest land biome-makes up 27% of the world’s forest.
Threats-timber and mineral exploitation
Plant Adaptations in the Boreal Forest
keep their leaves all year long. This allows them to carry out the process of photosynthesis whenever temperatures begin
to rise.
The leaves of these trees also have a waxy coating to prevent water loss.
These needle-like leaves are also dark in color so that they absorb more of the available sunlight and droop downward to
help shed the weight of excess snow.
Animal Adaptations to the Boreal Forest
1. storing extra layers of fat that will help to keep them warm.
2. change in their coat color helping them to blend in to a snowy environment as well as the brown forest floor in the
warmer months.
3. hibernate to avoid the cold winter months while others migrate to warmer regions or live in snow tunnels that insulate
them from the frigid temperatures.
Temperate Grasslands
Located in the middle latitudes are called prairies-north of the tropic of Cancer and Capricorn
Southern Canada to the Midwest of US
Called pampas in Argentina
Very hot in the summer and extremely cold in the winter.
Areas of high winds and semi-arid conditions.
Receive less than 30 inches of rain per year. Tall grasses cover much of this biome.
Threats-overgrazing and conversion to farmland
Plant Adaptations:
Grass have thin, needle-like leaves limit water loss and expose little surface area to the hot sun.
Grass grow upward from their base instead of from the top of the plant. This protects a plant when animals graze on the
top portions of its stalks and leaves and ensures that it will grow back even after frequent wildfires.
Sturdy flowers such as cone flowers also do well in the dry, hot climate.
The root systems are extensive and in some cases over seventy percent of a plant is underground where it is protected
from the sun and wind.
deep root system also allows grassland plants to find water during times of drought. Although the top layer of soil can be
dry and thin, the mass of living and dead plant matter beneath the surface makes the soil of the temperate grassland
extremely fertile.
Very few trees and woody plants survive in the temperate grassland, however, due to a lack of adequate rainfall.
Animal Adaptations to Grasslands
Temperate grasslands also support a variety of animals that have adapted to the changing climate. Many small animals
such as mice, hares, and prairie dogs make their homes in burrows under the surface. These underground homes protect
them from predators and also keep them cool in the summer and warm in the winter. They eat the grasses and seeds in
their environment and are hunted by predators such as snakes, owls, and wolves. Large grazing animals such as bison
and antelope can also be found feeding on grasses and moving in herds for protection.
Tropical Grasslands
located north and south of the equator and are often called savannas. Between the tropics of Cancer and Capricorn
Winters tend to be warm and dry while summers are hot and rainy.
Found on all continents except Antartica
Rainfall in tropical grassland can vary greatly from 18 inches to over 50 inches each year.
Scattered trees
Threats-poaching, overgrazing, conversion to farmland, desertification
Plant Adaptations for tropical grasslands
Those located near rainforests have a more dependable supply of water and tend to have grasses reaching heights of
several feet and dense concentrations of trees.
Those located further away from the equator tend to be covered by lower shrubs and shorter grasses.
Some plants have thorns to discourage the grazing animals from eating them.
As the tropical grassland stretches away from the rainforest, it becomes hotter and drier and its plants become shorter,
more drought resistant, and thorny.
Some grasses turn brown in order to conserve water, while others store water in the same way as desert plants or lie
dormant during times of drought.
The soil of most tropical grasslands is porous. This causes water to rapidly drain away after a rain.
Animal Adaptations to tropical grasslands
During the dry season, many animals and birds migrate in search of food and water.
the African elephant use their physical strength to find water-tear open the trunks of Baobab trees to drink stored water.
small animals use underground burrows where they hibernate during periods of drought.
large grazing animals like the gazelles and wildebeests travel in herds for protection and feed on the plentiful grasses.
Predators have to be quick, powerful, and camouflaged to catch these large grazing animals.
Some animals are scavengers such as vultures.
The Tundra
Extremely cold and dry biome that covers about twenty percent of the Earth’s surface.
Most is located in the northern hemisphere circling the North Pole.
Long, severe winters with long periods of darkness and short cool summers with some periods of 24 hour daylight.
Rainfall in the tundra is between four and ten inches per year making the tundra a cold, dry desert.
Windiest biome
Lowest biodiversity
Threats-habitat destruction and global warming, about 1/3 of soil bound C is found in the tundra
Plant Adaptations to the Tundra
plants are usually small and low-growing-include mosses, grasses, and lichen.
root systems are shallow due to the bare, rocky ground as well as the permafrost layer.
Permafrost is a layer of frozen soil just below the surface that remains frozen all year long.
Being close to the ground also protects the plants from freezing.
Many tundra plants are dark green or red and grow in clumps. The dark colors help to absorb more solar energy and their
closeness to other plants helps them conserve the trapped heat
Animal Adaptations to the Tundra
Most abundant animals in the tundra are the insects.
In the short summer season mosquitoes, and deer-flies abound and insect-eating birds take their fill.
During the long winter months many of these birds migrate south
Most animals have adaptations such as short limbs, compact bodies, thick deposits of fat, thick layers of feathers, or
dense fur coats to help them conserve heat and stay warm.
Other animals keep warm by burrowing under the surface or huddling together to share body heat.
A variety of rodents, snowshoe rabbits, and other small mammals, while huge caribou travel in herds.
Predators such as wolves, snowy owls, grizzly bears, polar bears, and white fox
Aquatic Biomes: Freshwater and Marine
Freshwater Ecosystems: Ponds
is a shallow body of standing fresh water.
The depth of the water allows sunlight to reach the bottom of the pond=photosynthesis
The water temperature is fairly even from top to bottom due to the shallowness of the water.
may actually freeze solid. The pond substrate usually consists of mud.
Plants such as water lilies, duckweed, algae, and grasses
Animals include: ducks, blackbirds, beavers, turtles, newts, snails, frogs, fish, and insects
Freshwater Ecosystems: Marshes
an area made up of standing fresh, salt, or brackish water and water-logged soil-often located near the edges of rivers,
lakes, or oceans.
The depth of the water can range from a few inches to a few feet.
Because of its shallow nature, sunlight is able to penetrate to the bottom of the marsh=photosynthesis
The water temperature fairly even from top to bottom and can be quickly affected by the heating of the sun and the cooling
affect of precipitation.
Substrate materials can include sand, mud, or clay.
Plants such as willows, cattails, and grasses due to their ability to adapt to constant saturation as well as changing water
levels.
They can include alligators, opossums, crane, ducks and wading birds, beaver, snakes, frogs, fish, and crayfish.
Freshwater Ecosystems: Swamps
Swamps are areas of standing fresh water and water-logged soil. They are normally found near rivers, lakes, and
oceans.
swamps are mainly covered by trees and bushes-This tree cover limits the amount of sunlight reaching the swamps
surface and thus the process of photosynthesis in the swamp plants. The result is lower levels of oxygen in the water.
The shading of the swamp ecosystem also affects the water temperature.
With limited sunlight filtering through the tree canopies, the temperature of the water tends to be cooler.
Plants include cypress trees, yellow iris, cattails, and duckweed. These plants are adapted to living in shaded areas
saturated with water.
Swamp animals include black bears, white-tailed deer, wolves, opossum, snakes, turtles, toads, and large wading birds
such as egrets.
Freshwater Ecosystems: Streams
is a moving body of water that often originates in the mountains. It can be fed by underground streams or runoff from
melting snow or rain.
The flow, depth, temperature, and oxygen levels can constantly change as the environment around it changes.
Water temperature in a stream can vary greatly depending on the time of year and location of the stream.
Because of moving water, plants usually live beside them and not in them. Examples: grasses, reeds, duckweed, and
mosses. blue-green algae can actually survive in the moving waters.
Animals include fish, salamanders, snakes, turtles, snails, and larger mammals
Freshwater Ecosystems: Rivers
As streams flow and are joined by other streams, they collect more water and become larger bodies of moving water
called rivers. Rivers can be wide and slow moving or narrow and rapid. Like streams, a river is affected by the
environment it flows through. The amount of sunlight, water temperatures, and depth can change over time as the
environment around them changes. These changes can then affect the living organisms in and around the river.
Mosses, algae, cattails, and reeds are some of the plants that have adapted to life in a river ecosystem. Animal life can
include ducks and migratory birds, otters, turtles, frogs, shrimp, fish, and insects.
Saltwater Ecosystems: Marine
Seventy percent of the water on Earth is located in oceans.
Ocean waters move in circular patterns called currents
energy from the sun heats the ocean surface and drives the movement of ocean currents.
Sunlight is able to pass through and warm the shallower waters located on the oceans’ continental shelf-this area is home
to marine plants that depend on the process of photosynthesis for their survival. Plant life in the open ocean can be found
in the top layer of water where photosynthesis can occur.
The temperature of ocean water depends on its latitude and depth: equator warmer than poles/warmer at the
Marine Organisms
There are two main types of ocean producers: seaweed and phytoplankton.
Some seaweed, like the Giant Kelp, can grow to 125 feet in length.
The most abundant producers in the ocean are phytoplankton-tiny floating protists
The first group of ocean animal is called Pelagic and they float- are unable to move through the water on their own
example is the jellyfish.
The next group swims about freely and is called Nekton. They live in all parts of the ocean environment and include
whales, dolphins, sharks, squid, sting rays, and fish.
The third kind of ocean animal spends life on the ocean floor and are called Benthic organisms. group includes lobsters,
starfish, worms, snails, oysters, corals and sponges.