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Document 1: Manufacturing in the early 19th Century
Document 2: Jacksonian Democrats: 1824-1860
Document A: The Market Revolution
Document B: Market Revolution: Factories, Working Women, and Wage Labor
Document C: Market Revolution: Bankers and Lawyers
Document D: Racial Prejudice in the Jackson Era
Document E: The Labor Movement
Document F: Race and Opportunity
Document G: Indian Policy and the Trail of Tears
Document H: Slavery in the United States
Document I: Slave Labor
Document 1: Manufacturing in the early 19th Century
The "American System" was the first to successfully implement the use of interchangeable parts
in industry.
LEARNING OBJECTIVE
Describe the social and economic significance of the American System's use of standardized,
interchangeable parts
KEY POINTS
The use of interchangeable parts helped create a division of labor with semi-skilled workers on
an assembly line to produce a finished product.
The development of such an American manufacturing system had been encouraged by Hamilton
and the Federalist Party, which lauded industrial entrepreneurs as models of the republican
virtues of innovation, industry, and self-reliance.
Arguing that continued dependence on Europe for manufactured goods jeopardized the
independence of the U.S., Hamilton encouraged Congress to implement protective tariffs and
invest in new mechanization processes and technical innovations.
TERMS
American System The American system of manufacturing was a set of manufacturing methods
that evolved in the 19th century. The two notable features were a system for making
interchangeable parts and high degree of mechanization which resulted in more efficient use of
labor compared to hand methods.
Division of labor Division of labour is the specialization of cooperative labour in specific,
circumscribed tasks and like roles.
entrepreneur A person who organizes and operates a business venture and assumes much of the
associated risk.
MAIN TEXT
Background
The "American System" featured semi-skilled labor using machine tools and jigs to make
standardized, identical, interchangeable parts, which could be assembled with a minimum of
time and skill. The name "American System" came simply from the fact that for a time in the
1800s the system was strongly associated with the American companies who had first
successfully implemented it. Within a few decades, manufacturing technology had evolved
further, and the ideas behind the "American System" were in use worldwide. Questions: What
were the features of the American System? Where did the name “American System” come
from?
Interchangeability of parts was finally achieved by combining a number of innovations and
improvements in machining operations and machine tools, which were developed primarily for
making textile machinery. These innovations included the invention of new machine tools and
jigs (in both cases, for guiding the cutting tool), fixtures for holding the work in the proper
position, and blocks and gauges to check the accuracy of the finished parts. Since the parts were
interchangeable, it became possible to separate manufacture from assembly, which could then be
carried out by semi-skilled labor on an assembly line - an example of the division of labor. The
system typically involved replacing hand tools with specialized machinery and allowed
industrialists to greatly reduce costs. Questions: Describe the mechanized innovations that led
to our ability to create “interchangeable parts.” How was labor affected and what replaced
handtools? Did this help industrialists reduce costs? Why or why not?
Effects of Manufacturing Innovation
Such innovation, as demonstrated in the American System, had been extolled by Hamilton and
the Federalist Party in the 1790s as the supreme virtues of American republicanism. In his Report
on Manufacturers, Hamilton argued that an expansion of manufacturing (particularly of textiles)
was necessary in order to produce nationally made finished goods--and thereby reduce American
dependence on European products. Arguing that continued dependence on Europe for
manufactured goods jeopardized U.S. independence, Hamilton encouraged Congress to
implement protective tariffs and invest in new mechanization processes and technical
innovations. Furthermore, Hamilton and the Federalists believed that the characteristics of the
successful industrialists--self-reliance, autonomy, innovation, and entrepreneurship--were the
bedrock of values on which they sought to model the national political system. According to
Hamilton, the commercial classes created a class of talented, industrious, and virtuous men who
could be trusted to wield federal political power. Hence, for the Federalists, manufacturing was
of primary importance to federal policy because it served as a breeding ground for new
generations of talented, virtuous republican leaders. Questions: What party extolled the
virtues of the American System? Why was the ability to make our own finished goods so
important? According to Hamilton supporting the commercial classes would create what
type of men?
Document 2: Jacksonian Democrats: 1824-1860
Jacksonian democracy is the political movement toward greater democracy for the common man
typified by American politician Andrew Jackson.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Explain the general principles of Jacksonian democracy
Compare and contrast Jacksonian democracy with Jeffersonian democracy
KEY POINTS
Jackson's policies followed the era of Jeffersonian democracy which dominated the previous
political era.
Jackson's supporters began to form the modern Democratic Party; they fought the rival Adams
and Anti-Jacksonian factions, which soon emerged as the Whigs.
During the Jacksonian era, the suffrage was extended to (nearly) all white male adult citizens.
TERMS
laissez-faire an economic environment in which transactions between private parties are free
from tariffs, government subsidies, and enforced monopolies, with only enough government
regulations sufficient to protect property rights against theft and aggression
strict constructionism a particular legal philosophy of judicial interpretation that limits or
restricts judicial interpretation (the phrase is also commonly used more loosely as a generic term
for conservatism among the judiciary)
Andrew Jackson Andrew Jackson (March 15, 1767 – June 8, 1845) was the seventh President
of the United States (1829–1837).
MAIN TEXT
Jacksonian democracy is the political movement toward greater democracy for the common man
typified by American politician Andrew Jackson and his supporters. Jackson's policies followed
the era of Jeffersonian democracy which dominated the previous political era. The DemocraticRepublican Party of the Jeffersonians became factionalized in the 1820s. Jackson's supporters
began to form the modern Democratic Party; they fought the rival Adams and Anti-Jacksonian
factions, which soon emerged as the Whigs. Questions: What typified Jackson’s political
movement, who was the focus? The Jeffersonians became divided in the 1820’s, what party
did Jackson form? What party did his opponents form?
More broadly, the term refers to the period of the Second Party System (mid-1824–1860) when
the democratic attitude was the spirit of that era. It can be contrasted with the characteristics of
Jeffersonian democracy. Jackson's equal political policy became known as "Jacksonian
Democracy," subsequent to ending what he termed a "monopoly" of government by elites.
Jeffersonians opposed inherited elites but favored educated men while the Jacksonians gave little
weight to education. The Whigs were the inheritors of Jeffersonian Democracy in terms of
promoting schools and colleges. During the Jacksonian era, the suffrage was extended to (nearly)
all white male adult citizens. Questions: When did the Second Party system roughly begin
and end? What did Jacksonian Democracy hope to end? What did the Whigs inherit from
the Jeffersonian Republicans? The Jacksonian Democrats extended suffrage to whom?
In contrast to the Jeffersonian era, Jacksonian democracy promoted the strength of the
presidency and executive branch at the expense of Congress, while also seeking to broaden the
public's participation in government. They demanded elected (not appointed) judges and rewrote
many state constitutions to reflect the new values. In national terms the Jacksonians favored
geographical expansion, justifying it in terms of Manifest Destiny. There was usually a
consensus among both Jacksonians and Whigs that battles over slavery should be avoided. The
Jacksonian Era lasted roughly from Jackson's 1828 election until the slavery issue became
dominant after 1850 and the American Civil War dramatically reshaped American politics as the
Third Party System emerged. Questions: Jacksonian Democrats and Whigs had consensus on
what issue?
Jacksonian democracy was built on the following general principles:
Expanded Suffrage
The Jacksonians believed that voting rights should be extended to all white men. By 1820,
universal white male suffrage was the norm, and by 1850 nearly all requirements to own
property or pay taxes had been dropped. Describe the what changed about
Manifest Destiny
This was the belief that white Americans had a destiny to settle the American West and to
expand control from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific and that the West should be settled by
yeoman farmers. However, the Free Soil Jacksonians, notably Martin Van Buren, argued for
limitations on slavery in the new areas to enable the poor white man to flourish; they split with
the main party briefly in 1848. The Whigs generally opposed Manifest Destiny and expansion,
saying the nation should build up its cities.
Patronage
Also known as the spoils system, patronage was the policy of placing political supporters into
appointed offices. Many Jacksonians held the view that rotating political appointees in and out of
office was not only the right but also the duty of winners in political contests. Patronage was
theorized to be good because it would encourage political participation by the common man and
because it would make a politician more accountable for poor government service by his
appointees. Jacksonians also held that long tenure in the civil service was corrupting, so civil
servants should be rotated out of office at regular intervals. However, it often led to the hiring of
incompetent and sometimes corrupt officials due to the emphasis on party loyalty above any
other qualifications.
Strict Constructionism
Like the Jeffersonians who strongly believed in the Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions,
Jacksonians initially favored a federal government of limited powers. Jackson said that he would
guard against "all encroachments upon the legitimate sphere of State sovereignty". This is not to
say that Jackson was a states' rights extremist; indeed, the Nullification Crisis would find
Jackson fighting against what he perceived as state encroachments on the proper sphere of
federal influence. This position was one basis for the Jacksonians' opposition to the Second Bank
of the United States. As the Jacksonians consolidated power, they more often advocated
expanding federal power and presidential power in particular.
Laissez-faire Economics
Complementing a strict construction of the Constitution, the Jacksonians generally favored a
hands-off approach to the economy, as opposed to the Whig program sponsoring modernization,
railroads, banking, and economic growth. The leader was William Leggett of the Locofocos in
New York City.
Banking
In particular, the Jacksonians opposed government-granted monopolies to banks, especially the
national bank, a central bank known as the Second Bank of the United States. Despite this,
Jackson did not actively seek to destroy or fight the Bank, only vetoing the Bank's recharter and
subsequently pulling out federal reserves. The Whigs, who strongly supported the Bank, were led
by Daniel Webster and Nicholas Biddle, the bank chairman. Jackson himself was opposed to all
banks, because he believed they were devices to cheat common people; he and many followers
believed that only gold and silver could be money.
Document A:
The Market Revolution
The Market Revolution of the 19th century radically shifted commerce as well as the way of life
for most Americans.
LEARNING OBJECTIVE
Summarize the key technological, political, and geographic factors that contributed to the Market
Revolution in the United States
KEY POINTS
The Market Revolution was characterized by a shift away from local or regional markets to
national markets.
The agricultural explosion in the South and West and the textile boom in the North strengthened
the economy in complementary ways.
Eli Whitney's cotton gin and pioneering work with metal mechanical parts contributed greatly to
industrialization.
Large-scale domestic manufacturing, concentrated in the North, decreased dependence on
foreign imports and resulted in an increase in wage labor.
The power of the federal government grew under Henry Clay's American System, which led to
many improvements in the form of expanded roadways and canal systems.
The rapid development and westward expansion during the Market Revolution resulted in land
speculation which caused economic boom and bust.
Growth in the manufacturing sector resulted in an increase in wage labor.
The power of the federal government grew under Henry Clay's American System.
TERMS
American System The American system of manufacturing was a set of manufacturing methods
that evolved in the 19th century. The two notable features were a system for making
interchangeable parts and high degree of mechanization which resulted in more efficient use of
labor compared to hand methods.
wage labor Wage labor is the socioeconomic relationship between a worker and an employer,
where the worker sells his labor under a formal or informal employment contract.
Eli Whitney Eli Whitney (December 8, 1765 – January 8, 1825) was an American inventor best
known for inventing the cotton gin.
MAIN TEXT
The Market Revolution (1793–1909) in the United States was a drastic change in the manual
labor system originating in the South (and soon moving to the North) and later spreading to the
entire world. Traditional commerce was made obsolete by improvements in transportation,
communication and industry. With the growth of large-scale domestic manufacturing, trade
within the U.S. increased and dependence on foreign imports declined. The dramatic changes in
labor and production at this time included a great increase in wage labor. The agricultural
explosion in the South and West and the textile boom in the North strengthened the economy in
complementary ways. Questions: What effect did large scale manufacturing have on the
U.S? How was labor affected?
Commercial agriculture and domestic manufacturing became crucial sectors of the American
economy. In 1793, Eli Whitney's cotton gin revolutionized the cotton industry in the South. The
cotton gin (short for cotton engine) was a machine that quickly and easily separated cotton fibers
from their seeds, a job that otherwise had to be performed painstakingly by hand. Whitney went
on to develop muskets with interchangeable parts, a technology employed by Northern
manufacturers in many different industries. Questions: Who was Eli Whitney? Explain the
effect of the cotton gin
Many new products revolutionized agriculture in the West as well. John Deere, for example,
invented a horse-pulled steel plow to replace the difficult oxen-driven wooden plows that
farmers had used for centuries. The steel plow allowed farmers to till soil faster and more
cheaply without having to make repairs as often. In the 1830s, Cyrus McCormick's mechanical
mower-reaper quintupled the efficiency of wheat farming. As in the South after the cotton gin,
farmers in the West raked in huge profits as they acquired more lands to plant more and more
wheat. More important, farmers for the first time began producing more wheat than the West
could consume. Rather than let it go to waste, they began to transport crop surpluses to sell in the
manufacturing Northeast. Questions: Discuss two technologies that revolutionized
agriculture. What were the effects of these technological advances?
The importance of the federal government also grew during this period. Congressman Henry
Clay introduced the American System to develop internal improvements, protect U.S. industry
through tariffs, and create a national bank. Federal and local governments, as well as private
individuals invested in roads, canals and railroads. The 1825 completion of the Erie Canal was a
tremendous engineering feat and opened the West for trade with markets on the east coast.
Following the War of 1812, the American economy was altered from an economy partly
dependent on imports from Europe to an economy that evolved into an empire of internal
commerce. With a new generation of leaders the Republican Party came to embrace the
principles of government activism and the development of large-scale domestic
manufacturing. (Mr. Zavala: this is a shift from their early strict observation of the yeoman
farmer)
Westward expansion opened up rich new farmlands to settlers. This period of rapid development
in the East and expansion in the West produced a wave of land speculation that resulted in
economic periods of boom and bust. These periods were characterized by patterns of high market
prices followed by ruinously low prices, falling production, and bankruptcies by producers.
Document B:
Market Revolution: Factories, Working Women, and Wage Labor
Industrialization in the U.S. was marked by a growth in factories, working women, deskilled
workers and the implementation of wage labor.
LEARNING OBJECTIVE
Describe the early years of industrialization in the American Northeast
KEY POINTS
Beginning with the textile industry, wage labor began to replace family labor and apprenticeship
as the dominant form of labor in the United States.
The Boston Manufacturing Company became the leading textile manufacturer in the United
States and pioneered the Waltham-Lowell System.
Francis Cabot Lowell's Boston Manufacturing Company popularized reliance on wage labor,
where a laborer sells her labor to an employer under contract.
Young women were the primary labor force in the textile industry, though children were also
often employed in mills.
In the 1830s, the Lowell Mill Girls organized strikes to protest wage reductions.
A wage laborer sells her labor to an employer under contract.
Wage labor was viewed as a threat to the agrarian ideals of Jeffersonian Democracy.
Lowell Mill Girls actively participated in early labor reform in the 1830s and 1840s.
TERMS
wage labor Wage labor is the socioeconomic relationship between a worker and an employer,
where the worker sells his labor under a formal or informal employment contract.
Deskilling Deskilling is the process by which skilled labor within an industry or economy is
eliminated by the introduction of technologies operated by semiskilled or unskilled workers.
Waltham-Lowell System The Waltham-Lowell System was a labor and production model
employed in the United States, particularly in New England, during the early years of the
American textile industry in the early 19th Century.
As the nation deepened its technological base, artisans and craftsmen were made obsolete
through the process of deskilling, as they were replaced by non-specialized workers. These
workers used machines to replicate in minutes or hours work that would require a journeyman
days to complete. As New England's textile industry took off, mill villages quickly grew into
large factory towns, attracting rural workers from the surrounding countryside. The many
children employed in early factories were paid very low wages because they were seen to be
supplementing family income. Questions: As the nation was producing technological
advances how was labor and the workforce affected? How was New England’s economy
affected? What role did children play?
Francis Cabot Lowell was an American businessman who was instrumental in bringing the
Industrial Revolution to the United States. Lowell's Boston Manufacturing Company
dominated the textile industry in the United States in the 1820s, developing efficient and novel
systems of labor and production. Lowell popularized use of the wage laborer, who sells her labor
to an employer under contract. Wage labor displaced reliance on apprenticeship and family
labor. Jeffersonian agrarians viewed wage labor as a negative force in society, arguing that the
economy of the United States should be built upon agriculture rather than industry. Jefferson
reasoned that the growth of a class of wage laborers would decrease self-sufficiency in America.
Questions: Who was Francis Cabot Lowell? Describe the Boston Manufacturing Company.
When did it operate & what did it popularize? What did wage labor displace? How did
Jeffersonian Republicans respond? Why?
Lowell's factory employed young female workers, some as young as ten years old. These
workers were typically hired for contracts of one year. Though considered an improvement on
the squalid conditions of factory towns in the United Kingdom, conditions in the Lowell mills
were severe by modern American standards. Factories were crowded and extremely loud with
poor air quality and little to no ventilation. Employees worked from 5:00 am until 7:00 pm, for
as many as 80 hours per week. This model became known as the Waltham-Lowell System.
Questions: Who did Lowell’s factory typically employ? How long were they employed?
Describe the working conditions. What was the work environment like and how many
hours did they work?
Following attempts on the part of management to reduce wages, the Lowell Mill Girls - female
textile workers in Lowell, Massachusetts - actively participated in early labor reform in the
1830s and 1840s . They distributed legislative petitions, formed labor organizations, contributed
essays and articles to pro-labor newspapers and protested through turn-outs or strikes. Describe
the ways the Lowell Mill girls responded to their work environment.
Document C: Market Revolution: Bankers and Lawyers
The role of banks in the United States during the Market Revolution was an extremely divisive
issue.
LEARNING OBJECTIVE
Analyze the Second Bank of the United States' role in American politics of the early 19thcentury
KEY POINTS
The Second Bank of the United States, chartered in 1816, was highly controversial.
President Andrew Jackson viewed the Bank as unconstitutional, favoring private or state
controlled banks.
The Second Bank's liberal lending policies and practice of issuing paper money that was not
backed by hard currency contributed to the financial crises of 1819 and 1837.
Anti-federalists, led by Andrew Jackson, viewed the Second Bank as unconstitutional and a
monopoly.
The Supreme Court defended the legitimacy of the Second Bank in McCulloch vs. Maryland.
Jackson's war on the bank set the stage for the emergence of modern populism.
The Second Bank lost its charter in 1836.
MAIN TERMS
Panic of 1837 The Panic of 1837 was a financial crisis or market correction in the United States
built on a speculative fever.
Panic of 1819 The first major financial crisis in the United States, which occurred during the
political calm of the Era of Good Feelings.
Second Bank of the United States The nation's federally authorized central bank during its 20year charter from February 1817 to January 1836.
The role of banks in the United States during the Market Revolution was an extremely divisive
issue. As America's leaders sought to define the economic structure of the United States, partisan
politics came heavily into play in the debate over the merits of a national bank. The Second Bank
of the United States, chartered in 1816, played a major role in the controversies of this period.
Anti-federalists viewed the bank's sole control on the nation's currency as a monopoly and
argued that the powers and privileges possessed by the Second Bank were unconstitutional. Its
role as the sole depository of the federal government's revenues also made it a political target of
banks chartered by the individual states. Question: How did the anti-federalists view national
banks?
In McCulloch vs. Maryland, in an alliance between federalist lawyers and bankers, the
Supreme Court upheld the legality of the Second Bank. In 1818, Maryland attempted to impose a
tax on the state branch of the Second Bank. The Bank refused to pay the tax, and in 1819,
Daniel Webster, the bank's attorney as well as director of its Boston branch, brought the case
before the Supreme Court. In 1819, Supreme Court Chief Justice John Marshall, a federalist,
ruled that the state of Maryland could not impede the power of the federal bank. Question: How
did the Supreme Court rule on the issue of a national bank?
From 1816-1818, the Second Bank aided the agricultural boom in the United States through
lending policies which encouraged speculation in land. In the summer of 1818, managers
recognized the Bank's massive over-extension and began to call in loans, curtailing land sales.
This resulted in the Panic of 1819. Question: What aided the agricultural boom from 18161818?
Jackson's War on the Bank
President Andrew Jackson strongly opposed the renewal of the Bank's charter in 1836 and built a
successful platform for the election of 1832 around this issue. Jackson's political target was
Nicholas Biddle, financier, politician, and president of the Second Bank of the United States.
Jackson was opposed by the Whig political party, representing Northern merchants and
manufacturers, Southern landowners, and Western farmers. These federalists sought internal
improvements and stronger national infrastructure. Questions: What did Jackson oppose
renewing in 1836? Who was his political target? Who supported the Whig Party?
In October, 1833, Jackson announced that federal funds would no longer be deposited in the
bank. Hoping to demonstrate the need for a central bank, Bank President Nicholas Biddle began
calling in loans from across the country, engineering a financial crisis. The bank shouldered the
majority of the blame for this crisis and subsequently lost its charter in 1836. Questions: What
action did Jackson take in 1833?
Jackson was a strong advocate for hard currency. In an effort to take control of the unstable
economy, Jackson issued a Specie Circular in 1836 requiring all purchases of federal lands to be
paid in metal coin rather than paper money. The instability of this period set the stage for the
Panic of 1837. Many blamed the Panic of 1837 on the banks' irresponsibility in funding rampant
speculation and issuing excessive paper money unbacked by bullion reserves.
Jackson's war on the bank set the stage for the emergence of modern populism. His egalitarian
rhetoric allowed him to cast himself as the people's tribune against the moneyed elite and their
tools in government, introducing an enduring theme in American politics.
Document D: Racial Prejudice in the Jackson Era
Although the Jackson presidency witnessed an expansion of liberty for some, it also saw the
continued suppression of freedom for others.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Identify the demographic groups in which Jacksonian ideals found most favor
Identify the Trail of Tears
KEY POINTS
American politics became increasingly more democratic as white male suffrage extended voting
rights to non-landowners and increased the privileges of small farmers of the West and the
workers, artisans and small merchants of the East.
While participation in the political process was facilitated for white male proponents of
Jacksonian democratic ideals; they were not extended to non-white individuals or women.
Jacksonian policies of geographical expansion came in direct conflict with the many Native
American tribal nations. Indeed, the Indian Removal Act of 1830 forced many tribes off of their
lands.
White Male Suffrage
American politics became increasingly democratic beginning in the 1820's, as many state and
local offices went from being appointed to being elective, and the original requirements for
voters to own property were abolished. Jacksonian Democracy drew its support from the small
farmers of the West, and the workers, artisans and small merchants of the East. These supporters
favored geographical expansion in order to create more farms for others like them, and distrusted
the upper classes who envisioned an industrial nation built upon finance and manufacturing.
While participation in the political process was facilitated for white male proponents of
Jacksonian democratic ideals, it was not extended to non-white individuals or women.
Additionally, Jacksonian policies involving geographical expansion conflicted directly with the
many Native American tribal nations who occupied lands desired by Jacksonian supporters.
Questions: What voting requirement was abolished with Jackson? Who supported the
Jacksonian Democrats? What did these supporters favor? Who did they distrust?
Although property-less white males were given suffrage, who was still unable to vote?
Trail of Tears
Congress passed the Indian Removal Act in 1830, which authorized the President to negotiate
treaties that exchanged Indian tribal lands in the eastern states for lands west of the Mississippi
River. A special Indian territory was established in what is now the eastern part of Oklahoma in
1834. In all, Native American tribes signed 94 treaties during Jackson's two terms, ceding
thousands of square miles to the federal government. Questions: What were the consequences
of the Indian Removal Act? How many treaties were signed during Jackson’s two
presidential terms?
The Cherokees insisted on their independence from state government authority, and thereby
faced expulsion from their lands. In order to avoid expulsion, a faction of Cherokees signed the
Treaty of New Echota in 1835, obtaining money in exchange for their land. Despite protests
from the elected Cherokee government and many whites who supported the tribe, the Cherokees
were forced to trek to the Indian Territory in 1838. Along the way, many died of disease and
deprivation in what became known as the "Trail of Tears". Questions: Why were Cherokees
facing expulsion? What did the Treaty of New Echota do?
Document E: The Labor Movement
Union activity and striking were important means for workers in the early 1800s to address harsh
manufacturing conditions.
LEARNING OBJECTIVE
Identify key moments and groups in the early history of the labor movement
KEY POINTS
Workplaces in the early 19th century were notoriously crowded and dangerous, offering low pay
and no job security.
Workers' organizations and trade unions fought for reforms to improve these conditions;
however unions were not recognized as legal organizations until Commonwealth v. Hunt, in
1842.
Women and children were often employed in garment factories and textile mills, and actively
contributed to the early labor movement.
In 1827, The Mechanics' Union of Trade Associations formed as a proxy of the united crafts in
Philadelphia, with the primary goal of reducing the 12-hour work day.
In 1837, dozens of industries achieved a victory when the City of Philadelphia passed legislation
prohibiting businesses from employing workers for more than 10 hours a day; unfortunately the
subsequent Panic of 1837 crippled the Union just after.
Unions were not recognized as legal organizations until Commonwealth v. Hunt, in 1842.
TERMS
Mechanics' Union of Trade Associations The Mechanics' Union of Trade Associations (also
known as The Mechanics' Union or MUTA) is a now-defunct American trade union founded in
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, in 1827.
Panic of 1837 The Panic of 1837 was a financial crisis or market correction in the United States
built on a speculative fever.
trade union An organization whose members belong to the same trade and that acts collectively
to address common issues.
Workplaces in the early 19th century were notoriously crowded and dangerous, offering low pay
and no job security. Factory work was extremely difficult, requiring 12 hour shifts in unsanitary
and unsafe conditions. Between 1830 and 1850, the notion of the "sweatshop" emerged as a
specific type of workshop in which a middleman, the "sweater," directed others in garment
production under arduous conditions. The workplaces created for the sweating system comprised
anywhere from a few to over one hundred workers. To improve these conditions, workers'
organizations and trade unions fought for reforms during the early days of the labor movement in
the United States. Questions: Describe the working conditions people faced.
The first local trade unions in the United States formed in the late 18th century. In 1794
Philadelphia shoemakers organized theFederal Society of Journeymen Cordwainers (a reference
to cordovan leather) in an effort to secure stable wages. After striking for higher wages, in 1806,
eight union leaders were brought to trial and accused of conspiring to increase their pay rates.
The defendants were found guilty in a Philadelphia court of "a combination to raise their wages.
" This decision established labor unions as illegal conspiracies; however, the ruling was
overturned in a landmark legal decision issued by the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court in
March, 1842. In Commonwealth v. Hunt, concerning a strike organized by the Boston
Journeymen Bootmakers' Society, Chief Justice Lemuel Shaw ruled that unions were legal
organizations. Questions: When did the first trade unions form? What happened to labor
leaders when they went on strike in 1806? What was the outcome of the court ruling
Commonwealth v. Hunt?
Women and children were often employed in garment factories and textile mills and actively
contributed to the early labor movement. In 1825, female textile workers formed the United
Tailoresses of New York to protest the long hours and harsh conditions in garment factories in
New York City . Similar strikes were led by textile workers throughout New England in the
1820s and 1830s. In 1835, children employed in the silk mills in Paterson, New Jersey initiated
an unsuccessful strike for an 11-hour day. Questions: Who was actively contributing to the
early labor movement? Describe the different types of responses from workers.
In 1827, The Mechanics' Union of Trade Associations formed as a proxy of the united crafts in
Philadelphia with the primary goal of reducing the 12-hour work day. Carpenters, representing
the union, led a strike for the 10-hour day in June 1827. Union members ran numerous
candidates for local offices while forging coalitions with other organizations that supported
educational reforms and economic regulations favorable to Philadelphia's workers. Questions:
What was the goal of Mechanics' Union of Trade Associations when striking?
In 1837, dozens of industries achieved a victory when the City of Philadelphia passed legislation
prohibiting businesses from employing workers for more than 10 hours a day. Unfortunately,
soon after the 10-hour workday legislation, the nation experienced the Panic of 1837 and the
subsequent rise in unemployment crippled the Mechanics' Union. Questions: How did the City
of Philadelphia respond?
Document F: Race and Opportunity
Despite the rising number of freed African-Americans in the North, they were not able to fully
participate in the Market Revolution.
LEARNING OBJECTIVE
Discuss the political and economic place of African-Americans in the early 19th-century North
KEY POINTS
Though most free African- Americans lived in poverty, some were able to establish successful
businesses.
The rare men in these occupations established the foundation of the African-American middle
class.
In 1857, the Supreme Court's decision Dred Scott v. Sandford ruled that African-Americans were
not and never could be American citizens.
The power of slaveholders in the South and racial discrimination in the North limited the
economic opportunities of African-Americans who had won their freedom.
Some African-American businessmen and professionals overcame the obstacles of
discrimination and established the foundation of the African-American middle class.
Some African American businessmen and professionals overcame the obstacles of
discrimination, often by exclusively serving the African American community, and established
the foundation of the African American middle class.
TERMS
Mason-Dixon line Also known as Mason and Dixon's Line, surveyed between 1763 and 1767 by
Charles Mason and Jeremiah Dixon in the resolution of a border dispute between British colonies
in Colonial America.
Dred Scott v. Sandford Dred Scott v. Sandford, 60 U.S. 393 (1857), also known as the Dred
Scott Decision, was a ruling by the U.S. Supreme Court that people of African descent brought
into the United States and held as slaves (or their descendants, whether or not they were slaves)
were not protected by the Constitution and were not U.S. citizens.
During the Market Revolution, slaveholders and the commodity crops of the South had a strong
influence on United States politics and economy; for example, New York City's economy was
closely tied to the South through shipping and manufacturing. Though this period saw a great
number of slaves freed in the North and to a much lesser extent the South, barriers to AfricanAmericans in terms of full participation in the economy remained intact. Questions: What tied
New York’s economy to the south?
African-Americans attempted to combat discrimination and strengthen their communities by
forming organizations like the American Society of Free People of Color. Other active
abolitionist bodies advocating reforms in the North were the Pennsylvania Abolition Society,
formed in 1775, and the New York Manumission Society, formed in 1785. These organizations
provided social aid to poor African-Americans and organized responses to political issues. The
African-American community also established schools for African-American children, who were
often barred from entering public schools. Questions: How did African Americans combat
discrimination? How did they respond?
As the United States grew, the institution of slavery became more entrenched in the Southern
states, even as Northern states began to abolish it. Vermont was the first state to outlaw slavery
in its constitution of 1777, and other Northern states followed suit. Either through the language
of their state constitutions, court decisions, or gradual emancipation acts, all states north of the
Ohio River and the Mason-Dixon Line had outlawed slavery by 1804. Questions: What
Northern state abolished slavery first? Did other states follow?
By 1810, 75 percent of African-Americans in the North and 13.5 percent of all AfricanAmericans in the United States were free. Following this period, fewer slaves were freed as a
result of the development of cotton plantations in the Deep South. The invention of the cotton
gin in 1793 triggered a huge demand for slave labor to develop new cotton plantations. During a
20-year period, there was a 70 percent increase in the number of slaves in the United States,
mostly concentrated in the Deep South. The abolition of the international slave trade in 1808 also
increased the demand for domestic slaves. Questions: By 1810, how many African Americans
are free in Northern States? How many African Americans were free in the entire U.S?
What effect did the cotton gin have on slavery?
By 1819, there were exactly 11 free and 11 slave states, which increased sectionalism in the
United States. Fears of an imbalance in Congress led to the 1820 Missouri Compromise that
divided the Territories along the 36°30′ parallel. Territories seeking statehood above the line
would become free states, and those below the line would become slave states. Many politicians
believed that this would provide a permanent solution to the vexing question of slavery in the
expanding American nation. Questions: What was the Missouri Compromise was about?
By 1830 there were 319,000 free African-Americans in the United States, 150,000 of whom
lived in the Northern states. While the majority of free African-Americans lived in poverty, some
were able to establish successful businesses that catered to the African-American community.
Doctors, lawyers and other businessmen were the foundation of the African-American middle
class.While virtually all African-Americans in the North were free by 1840, they were subject to
racial segregation and discrimination, including the institutionalized racism that characterized the
majority of the 20th century. Questions: Although by 1840 nearly all African Americans in
the North were free, w.hat type of obstacles did they still face?
In 1857, the outcome of the Supreme Court case Dred Scott v. Sandford struck a major blow to
the African-American community. In a decision roundly denounced by the Republican Party as
well as abolitionists, the court ruled that African-Americans were not and never could be
American citizens. This decision was reversed by the Civil Rights Act of 1865. Questions:
What did the Supreme Court ruling Dred Scott decision rule?
Document G: Indian Policy and the Trail of Tears
The Indian Removal Act of 1830 set the stage for westward expansion and the forced relocation
of Native Americans from the east to the west.
LEARNING OBJECTIVE
Describe the transformation of government policy toward Native American tribes under
President Andrew Jackson.
KEY POINTS
Indian removal was a 19th century policy of the United States government to relocate Native
American tribes living east of the Mississippi River to lands west of the river.
The Indian Removal Act was signed into law by President Andrew Jackson in June of 1830 and
resulted in the Trail of Tears, a trek that claimed the lives of thousands of Native Americans.
By 1837, 46,000 Native Americans from southeastern states had been removed from their
homelands, thereby opening 25 million acres (100,000 km2) for predominantly white settlement
and the expansion of slavery
Trail of Tears The Trail of Tears is a name given to the forced relocation and movement of
Native American nations from southeastern parts of the United States following the Indian
Removal Act of 1830.
Indian Removal Act The Indian Removal Act was signed into law by President Andrew
Jackson on May 28, 1830 to authorize the removal of Indian tribes to federal territory west of the
Mississippi River.
Five Civilized Tribes The Five Civilized Tribes were the five Native American nations—the
Cherokee, Chickasaw, Choctaw, Creek, and Seminole—that were considered civilized by AngloEuropean settlers during the colonial and early federal period because they adopted many of the
colonists' customs and had generally good relations with their neighbors.
Indian Removal
Indian removal was a 19th century policy of the U.S. government to relocate Native American
tribes living east of the Mississippi River to lands west of the river. The Indian Removal Act was
signed into law by President Jackson in 1830, and it had a profound and devastating impact on
the lives of Americans. For white land-hungry Southerners, the policy allowed for a prosperous
westward expansion. For Native Americans, the Removal Act brought death and destruction.
While the United States eventually tripled in size, thousands of Native Americans lost their
homes, families, and often their lives. Questions: Describe the Indian Removal Act of 1930.
What did it do, who supported it the act, who did it affect and what were the
consequences?
Since the presidency of Thomas Jefferson, America's policy had been to allow Native Americans
to remain east of the Mississippi as long as they became assimilated or "civilized. " His original
plan was to guide the Natives toward a sedentary agricultural lifestyle economically dependent
on trade with white Americans, and thereby willing to give up land in exchange for trade goods.
In the early 19th century the notion of "land exchange" developed - where Native Americans
would relinquish land in the east in exchange for equal or comparable land west of the
Mississippi River. This idea was proposed in 1803 by Jefferson, but was not used in actual
treaties until 1817, when the Cherokee agreed to cede two large tracts of land in the east for one
of equal size in present-day Arkansas. Many other treaties of this nature quickly followed.
Question: What was America’s policy towards Indians during Jefferson’s presidency?
Jacksonian Policy
Under Andrew Jackson, elected president in 1829, government policy toward Native Americans
became harsher. Jackson abandoned the policy of Jefferson and other predecessors and instead
aggressively pursued plans to move all Indian tribes living in the southeastern states, regardless
of whether they had assimilated or had become "civilized." At Jackson's request, the United
States Congress opened a fierce debate on an Indian Removal Bill. In the end, the bill passed, but
the vote was close. The Senate passed the measure 28–19, the House 102–97. Jackson signed the
legislation into law June 30, 1830. Questions: Did Jackson continue Jefferson’s policy? What
was Jackson’s policy?
In 1830, the majority of the " Five Civilized Tribes "—the Chickasaw , Choctaw , Creek ,
Seminole , and Cherokee —were living east of the Mississippi as they had for thousands of
years. Jackson's Removal Act implemented the U.S. government policy towards the Indian
populations, which called for relocation of Native American tribes living east of the Mississippi
River to lands west of the river. While it did not authorize the forced removal of the indigenous
tribes, it authorized the President to negotiate land exchange treaties with tribes located in lands
of the United States. Questions: Who were the Five Civilized Tribes? Where were they living
and where were they moved? What did it authorize the President to do?
The Case: Cherokee Nation v. Georgia
The first removal treaty signed after the Removal Act was the Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek
on September 27, 1830, in which Choctaws in Mississippi ceded land east of the river in
exchange for payment and land in the West. By the 1830s, the "Five" had assimilated into the
dominant culture; some even owned slaves. (See 1842 Slave Revolt in Cherokee Nation ). In
1831, members of the "Five" decided to use the US Supreme Court to combat Jacksonian
policies in Cherokee Nation v. Georgia, 30 US 1 (1831). In 1828, the state legislature of Georgia
enacted a series of laws that stripped the Cherokee of their rights under the state law with the
hope of forcing members off of their fertile and gold-sprinkled land. In June, 1830, a delegation
of Cherokee led by Chief John Ross selected (at the urging of Senators Daniel Webster and
Theodore Frelinghuysen) William Wirt, Attorney General in the Monroe and Adams
administrations, to defend Cherokee rights before the US Supreme Court. The Cherokee Nation
asked for an injunction, claiming that Georgia's state legislation had created laws designed to
annihilate the Cherokees as a political society. Wirt argued that Georgia violated the U.S.
Constitution and United States-Cherokee treaties. In 1832, the U.S. Supreme Court decision (
Worcester v. Georgia ) ruled that Georgia could not impose its laws upon Cherokee tribal lands.
However, the state and Jackson refused to accept or enforce the decision. Questions: How had
the Cherokees assimilated? What was Georgia law attempting to have Cherokee do? What
was the Supreme Court’s ruling?
Trail of Tears
Jackson used the Georgia crisis to pressure Cherokee leaders to sign a removal treaty. A small
faction of Cherokees, led by John Ridge, negotiated the Treaty of New Echota with Jackson's
representatives. Ridge was not a recognized leader of the Cherokee Nation , and this document
was rejected by most Cherokees as illegitimate. Over 15,000 Cherokees signed a petition in
protest of the proposed removal; the list was ignored by the Supreme Court and the U.S.
legislature, in part due to delays and timing. The treaty was enforced by Jackson's successor, Van
Buren, who ordered 7,000 armed troops to remove the Cherokees. Due to the infighting between
political factions, many Cherokees thought their appeals were still being considered until troops
arrived. This abrupt and forced removal resulted in the deaths of over 4,000 Cherokees on the "
Trail of Tears." By 1837, 46,000 Native Americans from southeastern states had been removed
from their homelands, thereby opening 25 million acres (100,000 km2) for predominantly white
settlement and the expansion of slavery. Questions: Who signed the Treaty of New Echota?
What were the consequences? How man y died during the Trail of Tears? How much land
opened up?
Resistance
In 1835, the Seminole tribe refused to leave their lands in Florida, leading to the Second
Seminole War. Osceola led the Seminole in their fight against removal. Based in the Everglades
of Florida, Osceola and his band used surprise attacks to defeat the US Army in many battles. In
1837, Osceola was seized by deceit upon the orders of US General T.S. Jesup when Osceola
came under a flag of truce to negotiate peace. Osceola died in prison. Some Seminole traveled
deeper into the Everglades, while others moved west. Removal continued out west, and
numerous wars ensued over land. Questions: Describe the resistance in Florida. Who were
the leaders of resistance? What were the outcomes?
Legacy
In 1987, about 2,200 miles of trails were authorized by federal law to mark the removal of
seventeen detachments of the Cherokee people. Called the "Trail of Tears National Historic
Trail," it traverses portions of nine states and includes land and water routes.
Document H: Slavery in the United States
Slavery was a form of forced labor existing as a legal institution from the Colonial period
until the mid-nineteenth century.
LEARNING OBJECTIVE
Describe how slavery became the foundational economic institution in the antebellum
South
KEY POINTS
Slavery, which was legally protected under the constitution, was integral to the
agricultural economies of the South, and thus to the nation's prosperity, in the eighteenth
and nineteenth centuries.
Though slavery was of direct importance only to the economies of Southern states,
Northern industries (such as shipping and textiles) depended on Southern crops.
After the American Revolution, most Northern states abolished slavery, and the federal
government prohibited slavery in the Northwest Territory and banned the external slave
trade.
By 1860, the slave population in the United States had grown to four million, with the
great majority in the South, on plantations or large farms.
Slaves resisted their enslavement through rebellions, non-compliance, and flight, with
many escaping to non-slave states and Canada, aided by the Underground Railroad.
Treatment of slaves was generally characterized by brutality, degradation, and
inhumanity; whippings, executions, and rapes were commonplace.
Slaveholders and those with vested interests in the plantation economy had a strong
influence on national politics: repeatedly forcing compromises over the preservation and
extension of slavery from the time of the drafting of the constitution through the 1850s.
In the North, abolitionists denounced slavery as sinful and antithetical to the principles of
the nation.
Over the course of the Civil War, the Union made abolition a goal of the war effort. They
succeeded, and all slaves were freed, without compensation for their owners, with the
adoption of the Thirteenth Amendment in 1865.
In the South, practices of slavery shaped the postwar institutions of convict leasing,
sharecropping, and Jim Crow laws to enforce racial segregation, white supremacy, and
legal disfranchisement that persisted into the mid-1960s.
TERMS
Dred Scott An African-American slave in the U.S. who unsuccessfully sued for his
freedom and that of his wife and their two daughters in the Dred Scott v. Sandford case of
1857, popularly known as "the Dred Scott Decision".
Mason-Dixon line Also known as Mason and Dixon's Line, surveyed between 1763 and
1767 by Charles Mason and Jeremiah Dixon in the resolution of a border dispute between
British colonies in Colonial America.
manumission Release from slavery; freedom.
MAIN TEXT
Slavery in the United States was a form of slave labor which existed as a legal institution
from the early years of the Colonial period. From the sixteenth to the nineteenth
centuries, an estimated 12 million Africans were shipped as slaves to the Americas. Of
these, an estimated 645,000 were brought to what is now the United States. By the 1860
United States Census, the slave population in the United States had grown to four million.
Questions: How many African slaves were shipped to the U.S from the 16th century?
Of these how many arrived in the U.S?
Under the system that became chattel slavery (ownership of a human being, and of
his/her descendants), a racial element was critical: Slaves were blacks of African descent
and owned by whites. Children of slave mothers always became slaves themselves.
Freedom was only possible by running away (which was difficult and illegal to do), or by
manumission by the owner, which was frequently regulated, and sometimes prohibited,
by applicable law. Questions: What is chattel slavery (describe the racial element)?
How was freedom gained?
Slavery was integral to the agricultural economies of the South, and thus to the nation's
prosperity, in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. By 1804, all states north of the
Mason and Dixon Line had either abolished slavery outright or passed laws for the
gradual abolition of slavery. However, slavery gained new life in the South with the
cotton industry after 1800, and expanded into the Southwest. The invention of the cotton
gin revitalized cotton production in the South and Southwest, thus increasing the demand
for slaves. The nation was polarized into slave and free states along the Mason-Dixon
Line, which separated Pennsylvania and Maryland. Questions: Discuss slavery in the
North by 1804 and slavery in the south after the 1800s? What invention revitalized
slavery? How did that affect slavery?
Slave labor was in demand in both northern (before 1800) and southern cities as servants.
However, the great majority of slaves worked at agriculture on plantations or large farms,
where good-quality soil and climate made for labor-intensive cultivation of lucrative cash
crops, such as rice, tobacco, sugar, and cotton. In small operations, slaves worked side by
side with their owners; on large plantations, they were directed by white paid overseers.
Describe where a majority of slaves worked. What was considered a cash crop?
Who did slaves work alongside with in small farms and who directed them in large
plantations?
Slaveholders and the commodities of the South had a strong influence on United States
politics, and, indeed, many presidents themselves were slaveholders. Slavery was a
contentious issue in the politics of the United States from the 1770s through the 1860s,
becoming a topic of debate in the drafting of the Constitution; a subject of Federal
legislation (such as the ban on the trans-Atlantic slave trade in 1808 and the passage of
the Fugitive Slave Act of 1850); and a subject of landmark U.S. Supreme Court cases,
such as the Dred Scott decision of 1857.
The treatment of slaves in the United States varied widely depending on conditions,
times, and places. Treatment was generally characterized by brutality, degradation, and
inhumanity. Whippings, executions, and rapes were commonplace. The colonies and
states generally denied slaves the opportunity to learn to read or write, to prevent their
forming aspirations that could lead to escape or rebellion. Some slaves learned from
planters' children, or from free laborers, if they were working alongside them. Some
states prohibited religious gatherings of slaves, fearing that group meetings would
facilitate communication and might lead to rebellion. Describe the horrible working
conditions & treatment endured by slaves
Slaves were punished by whipping, shackling, hanging, beating, burning, mutilation,
branding, and imprisonment. Punishment was most often meted out in response to
disobedience or perceived infractions but, sometimes, abuse was carried out simply to reassert the dominance of the master or overseer over the slave. Because of the power
relationships of the institution, slave women in the United States were at high risk for
rape and sexual abuse. Many slaves fought back against sexual attacks, and some died
resisting. Sexual abuse of slaves was partially rooted in a patriarchal Southern culture that
treated all women, black and white, as property or chattel. Describe the horrible
punishment given to slaves. What did female slaves experience at the hands of the
“master”?
By the 1850s, the South was vigorously defending slavery and its expansion into the
territories. In the North, a small number of abolitionists denounced it as sinful, and a
large number of anti-slavery forces rejected it as detrimental to the rights of free men.
Compromises were attempted and failed and in 1861, 11 slave states broke away to form
the Confederate States of America, leading to the American Civil War.
The federal government in 1862 made abolition of slavery a war goal. In 1863, President
Abraham Lincoln freed slaves in the rebellious southern states through the Emancipation
Proclamation. The Thirteenth Amendment, taking effect in December 1865, permanently
abolished slavery throughout the entire United States, including the Border states, such as
Kentucky, which still had about 50,000 slaves, and the Indian tribes.
Document I: Slave Labor
Slave labor in the United States - especially on large plantations - consisted of hard
manual labor often under brutal conditions.
LEARNING OBJECTIVE
Discuss the systems of slave labor in the United States
KEY POINTS
The great majority of slaves worked on plantations or large farms, where they were
organized into more or less brutal systems of labor based on factors such as gender, the
degree of slaves' specialized agricultural knowledge, and other factors.
The "gang system" was an efficient but brutal labor system used on plantations, which
involved unending, continuous, even-paced work throughout the day.
The "task system" was a more humane labor system which allowed slaves more
autonomy during their labor.
By 1860, most slaves were held in the Deep South, where they were engaged in gang
system of labor on large plantations.
On small farms, slaves worked side by side with their owners, while on large plantations,
slaves were directed by paid white overseers.
Some slaves had specialized agricultural knowledge which they could use to bargain for
better working conditions. This was particularly the case for slaves with knowledge about
rice cultivation on rice plantations.
TERMS
Gang system The gang system was a division of labor established on the plantation. It
was harsher and more efficient than the task system, forcing slaves to work at a
continuous pace and allowing almost no freedom.
task system The task system was a division of labor established on the plantation. It was
the less brutal than the gang system, and allowed slaves more autonomy.
MAIN TEXT
Chattel slavery in the United States, or the outright ownership of a human being and of
his/her descendants, was a form of forced labor which existed as a legal institution from
the early colonial period . While the majority of slaves performed hard manual labor on
farms and plantations, slavery was also seen in the major cities in the forms of house
servants. The great majority of slaves worked on plantations or large farms, where goodquality soil and climate made for labor-intensive cultivation of lucrative cash crops such
as rice, tobacco, sugar, and cotton. By 1860, most slaves were held in the Deep South,
where they were engaged in agricultural labor on large plantations. On small farms,
slaves worked side by side with their owners, whereas, on large plantations they were
directed by white paid overseers.
There were two primary types of labor systems seen on plantations: the gang system and
the task system. Each systems was characterized by the amount of work time required by
the slave and also the amount of freedom given to the slave. The gang system was the
more brutal of the two, forcing the slaves to work until the owner said they were finished
and allowing them almost no freedom. The gang system was much more efficient
because it allowed continuous work at the same pace throughout the day, never letting up
or slowing down. The task system, on the other hand, was less harsh and allowed the
slaves more autonomy than the gang system. Describe the “gang” system. How did it
compare to the “task” system?
Evidence suggests that the task system was gender oriented. For example, women
laborers were the predominant work force for rice cultivation within the task system of
the Southeastern United States. Some slaves had specialized agricultural knowledge
which they could use to bargain for better working conditions. This was particularly the
case for slaves with knowledge about rice cultivation on rice plantations. Research
suggests that the task system was an offshoot of the division of labor that was already in
place in the African tribal systems before the Atlantic slave trade brought the slaves over
to the American colonies. The slaves used this knowledge to bargain with the plantation
owners to gain more control over their work. It gave the plantation owners a greater
knowledge of this new and non-indigenous form of farming. The highly developed and
knowledgeable skills concerning rice planting possessed by slaves led to their successful
ability to use these skills as a bargaining chip in determining the length and conditions of
their bondage in the Americas. Describe the “task” system. How did it compare to the
“gang” system?