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CHAPTER 40
BASIC PRINCIPLES OF
ANIMAL FORM AND FUNCTION
Learning objectives:
Animal Form and Function
1. Distinguish between anatomy and physiology.
2. Explain how physical laws constrain animal form.
3. Use examples to illustrate how the size and shape of an animal’s body affect its interactions with the
environment.
4. Describe the challenges and benefits that come with complex animal form.
5. Define the terms tissue, organ, and organ system. Name the four main categories of tissues.
6. Distinguish among collagenous fibers, elastic fibers, and reticular fibers.
7. Describe the functions of macrophages and fibroblasts within connective tissue.
8. From micrographs or diagrams, correctly identify the following animal tissues, explain how their
structure relates to their functions, and note examples of each type.
a. Epithelial tissue
b. Connective tissue
i. Loose connective tissue
ii. Cartilage
iii. Fibrous connective tissue
iv. Adipose tissue
v. Blood
vi. Bone
c. Muscle tissue
i. Skeletal muscle
ii. Cardiac muscle
iii. Smooth muscle
d. Nervous tissue
i. Neuron
ii. Glial cell
9. Compare and contrast the nervous and endocrine systems with respect to specificity of target cells
and speed and duration of response.
Regulating the Internal Environment
10. Distinguish between regulators and conformers for a particular environmental variable. Explain how
an animal may be both a regulator and a conformer.
11. Define homeostasis. Describe in general terms how an animal maintains homeostasis.
12. Distinguish between positive and negative feedback mechanisms. Which type of mechanism
contributes to homeostasis?
13. Define thermoregulation. Explain in general terms how endotherms and ectotherms manage their
heat budgets.
14. Name four physical processes by which animals exchange heat with their environment.
15. Discuss the role of hair, feathers, and adipose tissue in insulation.
16. Explain the role of vasoconstriction and vasodilation in modifying the transfer of body heat with the
environment.
17. Describe how a countercurrent heat exchanger may function to retain heat within an animal body.
18. Describe animal adaptations to augment evaporative cooling.
19. Describe thermoregulatory mechanisms utilized by endothermic invertebrates.
20. Explain the mechanisms by which endotherms may increase their metabolic heat production.
21. Explain how ectotherms and endotherms may acclimatize to changing environmental temperatures.
The Bioenergetics of Animals
Learning Objectives for Campbell/Reece Biology, 8th Edition, © Pearson Education, Inc.
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Define bioenergetics.
Describe the basic sources of chemical energy and their fate in animal cells.
Define biosynthesis.
Define metabolic rate and explain how it can be determined for animals.
Distinguish between basal metabolic rate (BMR) and standard metabolic rate (SMR). Identify the
broad categories of animals to which each term applies.
State the equation that describes the relationship between metabolic rate and body size. Describe a
hypothesis to explain this relationship.
Describe, in broad terms, how the energy budgets of small and large endotherms differ.
Describe, in broad terms, how the energy budgets of ectotherms and endotherms of similar size
differ.
Define torpor, hibernation, estivation, and daily torpor.
CHAPTER 41
ANIMAL NUTRITION
Learning objectives:
Nutritional Requirements of Animals
1. List and briefly describe the three dietary categories of animals.
2. Name the three nutritional needs that must be met by an animal’s diet.
3. Define essential nutrients. Describe the four classes of essential nutrients.
4.
Distinguish between water-soluble and fat-soluble vitamins. Explain why megadoses of fat-soluble
vitamins are more dangerous than equally large doses of water-soluble vitamins.
5.
Distinguish among undernourishment, overnourishment, and malnourishment.
Overview of Food Processing
6. Define and compare the four main stages of food processing.
7. Compare intracellular and extracellular digestion.
8. Distinguish between a complete digestive tract and a gastrovascular cavity.
The Mammalian Digestive System
9. Describe the common processes and structural components of the mammalian digestive system.
10. Name three functions of saliva.
11. Compare where and how the major types of macromolecules are digested and absorbed within the
mammalian digestive system.
12. Explain why pepsin does not digest the stomach lining.
13. Explain how the small intestine is specialized for digestion and absorption.
14. Compare the uptake of an amino acid and a fatty acid in the small intestine. Trace the path of each
molecule following its uptake.
15. Describe the major functions of the large intestine.
Evolutionary Adaptations of Vertebrate Digestive Systems
16. Relate variations in dentition and length of the digestive system to the feeding strategies and diets of
herbivores, carnivores, and omnivores.
17. Describe the roles of symbiotic microorganisms in vertebrate digestion.
Homeostatic Mechanisms and Energy Balance
18. Explain where and in what form energy rich molecules may be stored in the human body.
19. Explain the role of ob or db genes in the regulation of fat storage.
20. Explain why fat hoarding may have provided a fitness advantage to our hunter-gatherer ancestors.
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CHAPTER 42
CIRCULATION AND GAS EXCHANGE
Learning objectives:
Circulatory Systems of Animals
1. Define partial pressure and explain how it influences diffusion across respiratory surfaces.
2. Describe how the need for circulatory and respiratory systems changes with increasing animal body
size.
3. Explain how a gastrovascular cavity functions in part as a circulatory system.
4. Distinguish between open and closed circulatory systems. List the three basic components common
to both systems.
5. Discuss the advantages of open and closed circulatory systems.
6. List the structural components of a vertebrate circulatory system and relate their structure to their
functions.
7. Describe the general relationship between metabolic rates and the structure of the vertebrate
circulatory system.
8. Using diagrams, compare and contrast the circulatory systems of fish, amphibians, non-bird reptiles,
and mammals or birds.
9. Distinguish between a pulmonary and pulmocutaneous circuit.
10. Distinguish between pulmonary and systemic circuits and explain the functions of each.
11. Compare the hearts of vertebrates with double circulation to those of vertebrates with a single circuit.
12. Define a cardiac cycle, distinguish between systole and diastole, and explain what causes the first and
second heart sounds.
13. List the heart valves in a human heart, describe their location, and explain their functions.
14. Define heart murmur and explain its cause.
15. Describe the location and function of the sinoatrial (SA) node of the heart.
16. Describe the origin and pathway of the impulses from the SA node in the normal human heart.
17. Explain how the pace of the SA node can be modulated by nerves, hormones, body temperature, and
exercise.
The Structure and Arrangement of Blood Vessels
18. Relate the structures of capillaries, arteries, and veins to their functions.
19. Explain why blood flow through capillaries is substantially slower than blood flow through arteries
and veins.
20. Define blood pressure and describe how it is measured.
21. Define cardiac output and describe two factors that influence it.
22. Explain how blood returns to the heart, even though it must sometimes travel from the lower
extremities against gravity.
23. Explain how blood flow through capillary beds is regulated.
24. Explain how osmotic pressure and hydrostatic pressure regulate the exchange of fluid and solutes
across capillary walls.
25. Describe the composition of lymph and explain how the lymphatic system helps the normal
functioning of the circulatory system. Explain the role of lymph nodes in body defense.
The Components of Blood
26. Describe the composition and functions of plasma.
27. Relate the structure of erythrocytes to their function.
28. List the functions of leukocytes.
29. Describe the function of platelets. Outline the sequence of events that occurs during blood clotting.
30. Outline the formation of erythrocytes from their origin from stem cells in the red marrow of bones to
their destruction by phagocytotic cells.
31. Describe the hormonal control of erythrocyte production.
32. Distinguish between a heart attack and a stroke.
33. Distinguish between low-density lipoproteins (LDLs) and high-density lipoproteins (HDLs).
34. List the factors that are correlated with an increased risk of cardiovascular disease.
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Gas Exchange in Animals
35. Define gas exchange and distinguish between a respiratory medium and a respiratory surface.
36. Describe the general requirements for a respiratory surface and list a variety of respiratory organs that
meet these requirements.
37. Describe respiratory adaptations of aquatic animals.
38. Describe the advantages and disadvantages of water as a respiratory medium.
39. Describe countercurrent exchange in fish gills. Explain why it is more efficient than the concurrent
flow of water and blood.
40. Describe the advantages and disadvantages of air as a respiratory medium and explain how insect
tracheal systems are adapted for efficient gas exchange in a terrestrial environment.
41. For the human respiratory system, describe the movement of air through air passageways to the
alveolus, listing the structures that air must pass through on its journey.
42. Describe the role of surfactants in alveoli. Explain why the absence of surfactants may lead to
respiratory distress in severely premature infants.
43. Compare positive and negative pressure breathing. Explain how respiratory movements in humans
ventilate the lungs.
44. Distinguish between tidal volume, vital capacity, and residual volume.
45. Compare the respiratory systems of birds and mammals, explaining the greater efficiency of oxygen
exchange in birds.
46. Explain how breathing is controlled in humans.
47. Describe the adaptive advantage of respiratory pigments in circulatory systems.
48. Distinguish between hemocyanin and hemoglobin as respiratory pigments.
49. Draw the Hb-oxygen dissociation curve, explain the significance of its shape, and explain how the
affinity of hemoglobin for oxygen changes with PO2 and pH.
50. Describe how carbon dioxide is picked up at the tissues and carried in the blood.
51. Describe the respiratory adaptations of the pronghorn that give it great speed and endurance.
52. Describe respiratory adaptations of diving mammals and the role of myoglobin.
CHAPTER 43
THE IMMUNE SYSTEM
Learning objectives:
Innate Immune Defenses Against Infection
1. Distinguish between innate and acquired immunity.
2. Explain how hemocytes protect invertebrates against pathogenic microbes, describing the role of
antimicrobial peptides.
3. Explain how the physical barrier of skin is reinforced by chemical defenses.
4. Define phagocytosis. Name four types of phagocytic leukocytes.
5. Explain how phagocytic leukocytes recognize microbes.
6. Describe the roles of antimicrobial proteins in innate immunity.
7. Explain how interferons limit cell-to-cell spread of viruses.
8. Describe the inflammation response, including how it is triggered.
9. Describe the factors that influence phagocytosis during the inflammation response.
10. Describe what occurs during the condition known as septic shock.
11. Explain how the action of natural killer cells differs from the action of phagocytes.
How Acquired Immunity Arises
12. Distinguish between:
a. antigens and antibodies
b. antigen and epitope
c. B lymphocytes and T lymphocytes
d. antibodies and B cell receptors
e. primary and secondary immune responses
13. Briefly summarize the basic facts of acquired immunity.
14. Explain how B lymphocytes and T lymphocytes recognize specific antigens.
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15. Compare the production and functions of class I MHC and class II MHC molecules.
16. Explain how the particular structure of a lymphocyte’s antigen binding site forms during
development. Explain the role of recombinase in generating the staggering diversity of lymphocytes.
17. Distinguish between the variable (V) and constant (C) regions of an antigen receptor.
18. Explain why the antigen receptors of lymphocytes are tested for self-reactivity during development.
Predict the consequences that would occur if such testing did not take place.
19. Describe the mechanism of clonal selection. Distinguish between effector cells and memory cells.
20. Describe the cellular basis for immunological memory.
Acquired Immune System Defenses
21. Distinguish between
a. humoral and cell-mediated response
b. active and passive immunity
22. Describe the roles of helper T lymphocytes in both humoral and cell-mediated immunity.
23. Describe the functions of the proteins CD4 and CD8.
24. Explain how a single antigen can provoke a robust humoral response.
25. Describe the production and uses of monoclonal antibodies.
26. Compare the processes of neutralization and opsonization.
27. Describe the variation found in the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) and their role in the
rejection of tissue transplants.
28. Explain what is unique about the source of potential immune rejection in bone marrow grafts.
Immunity in Health and Disease
29. Describe an allergic reaction, including the roles of IgE, mast cells, and histamine.
30. Explain what causes anaphylactic shock and how it can be treated.
31. List three autoimmune disorders and describe possible mechanisms of autoimmunity.
32. Explain how general health and stress levels may affect the immune system.
33. Distinguish between inborn and acquired immunodeficiency.
34. Describe some of the mechanisms that pathogens have evolved to thwart the immune response of
their hosts.
35. Describe the infectious agent that causes AIDS and explain how it enters a susceptible cell.
36. Explain how HIV is transmitted and describe its current incidence. List strategies that can reduce a
person’s risk of infection.
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