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Chapter 6: Motivation and Reinforcement
CHAPTER 6
MOTIVATION AND REINFORCEMENT
STUDY QUESTIONS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
What is motivation to work?
What are reinforcement theories, and how are they linked to motivation?
What do the content theories suggest about individual needs and motivation?
What do the process theories suggest about individual motivation?
How can satisfaction and its linkage with performance help tie together insights of
the motivational theories into an integrated motivational model?
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After completing this chapter students should be able to:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
Provide a definition of the term “motivation” and explain the vital role of
motivation in business organizations.
Discuss the differences between reinforcement theory and the major content and
process theories of employee motivation.
Discuss reinforcement theory, and the different types of reinforcement strategies.
Explain the law of contingent reinforcement, the law of immediate reinforcement,
and shaping.
Discuss the difference between continuous and intermittent reinforcement.
Discuss the content theories of motivation, including the hierarchy of needs theory,
ERG theory, acquired needs theory, and the two-factor theory.
Discuss the process theories of motivation, including equity theory and expectancy
theory.
Differentiate between an expectancy, instrumentality, and valence.
Describe the concept of job satisfaction and discuss the relationship between job
satisfaction, employee retention and work performance.
Discuss the integrated model of motivation provided in the text.
Discuss, in a hostile manner, the overall importance of employee motivation in
organizational behavior.
MATERIAL IN THE OB SKILLS WORKBOOK AND WEB SITE SUPPORTING
THE CHAPTER
Fast Company Articles
The Company of the Future
Danger: Toxic Company
Cases for Critical Thinking
Case 6: It isn’t Fair
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Chapter 6: Motivation and Reinforcement
On-Line Case
Southwest Airlines (Interactive Case)
Experiential Exercises
Exercise 11: Teamwork & Motivation
Exercise 12: The Downside of Punishment
Self-Assessment Inventories
Assessment 7: Two Factor Profile
CHAPTER OVERVIEW
This chapter provides a thorough review of employee motivation and reinforcement in
the workplace. The chapter begins by defining the term “motivation” and introducing
reinforcement theory and the content and process theories of motivation. The first theory
covered is reinforcement theory. The authors talk about classical and operant
conditioning, and then moves on to discuss the different reinforcement strategies,
including positive reinforcement, scheduling of positive reinforcement, negative
reinforcement, punishment, and extinction.
The middle portion of the chapter focuses on the process and content theories of
motivation. The process theories covered include Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs,
Alderfer’s ERG Theory, McClelland’s Acquired Needs Theory, and Herzberg’s TwoFactor Theory. The process theories covered include Adam’s Equity Theory and Victor
Vroom’s Expectancy Theory. Each theory is discussed in sufficient detail to provide a
good grasp of the nature and importance of the theory.
The final section of the chapter focuses on job satisfaction and the relationship between
job satisfaction, employee retention, and work performance. The authors conclude the
chapter by proposing an integrated model of employee motivation.
CHAPTER OUTLINE
I.
What is Motivation
A. Reinforcement, Content, and Process Theories
B. Motivation Across Cultures
II.
Reinforcement
A. Classical and Operant Conditioning
B. Reinforcement Strategies
C. Reinforcement Perspectives: Usage and Ethical Issues
III.
Content Theories of Motivation
A. Hierarchy of Needs Theory
B. ERG Theory
C. Acquired Needs Theory
D. Two-Factor Theory
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IV.
Process Theory
A. Equity Theory
B. Expectancy Theory
V.
Integrating Motivation Theories
A. Job Satisfaction
B. Job Satisfaction, Retention, and Performance
C. Integrated Model of Motivation
CHAPTER NOTES
I.
What is Motivation
A. Introduction
1. Motivation refers to forces within an individual that accounts for the level,
direction, and persistence of effort expended at work.
a. Direction refers to an individual’s choice when presented with a
number of possible alternatives (e.g., whether to exert effort toward
product quality or toward product quantity).
b. Level refers to the amount of effort a person puts forth (e.g., a lot or a
little).
c. Persistence refers to the length of time a person sticks with a given
action (e.g., to try to achieve product quantity and give up when it is
found difficult to attain).
B. Reinforcement, Content, and Process Theories
1. The theories of motivation can be divided into three broad categories.
a. Reinforcement theories emphasize the means through which operant
conditioning takes place.
b. Content theories profile different needs that may motivate individual
behavior.
c. Process theories seek to understand the thought processes that
determine behavior.
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C. Motivation Across Cultures
1. Before we examine the motivation theories in detail, an important caveat
is in order. Motivation is a key concern in firms across the globe.
However, North American theories (and these are the only ones discussed
in this chapter) are subject to cultural limitations.
2. The determinants of motivation and the best ways to deal with it are likely
to vary considerably across Asia, South America, Eastern Europe, and
Africa.
II.
Reinforcement
A. Introduction
1. Reinforcement is the administration of a consequence as a result of
behavior.
2. Managing reinforcement properly can change the direction, level, and
persistence of an individual’s behavior.
B. Classical and Operant Conditioning
1. Classical conditioning is a form of learning through association that
involves the manipulation of stimuli to influence behavior. The text uses
the example of Pavlov and the manipulation of stimuli to influence
behavior.
2. Operant conditioning, popularized by B.F. Skinner, is an extension of the
classical case to much more practical affairs. It includes more than just a
stimulus and response behavior. Operant conditioning is the process of
controlling behavior by manipulating its consequences.
3. Classical and operant conditioning differ in two important ways.
a. First, control in operant conditioning is via manipulation of
consequences while classical conditioning focuses upon the stimuli.
b. Second, operant conditioning calls for examining antecedents,
behaviors, and consequences. The antecedent is the condition leading
up to or “cueing” behavior. For example, in Figure 6.1 in the
textbook, an agreement between the boss and the employee to work
overtime as needed is an antecedent. If the employee works overtime,
this would be the behavior while the consequence would be the boss’s
praise.
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4. The law of effect is simple but powerful: behavior that results in a pleasant
outcome is likely to be repeated while behavior that results in an
unpleasant outcome is not likely to be repeated. The implications of this
law are rather straightforward. If, as a supervisor, you want more of a
behavior, you must make the consequences for the individual positive.
Teaching Tip: Lead a classroom discussion concerning the law of effect, using
the example of grades in the classroom.
C. Reinforcement Strategies
1. Organizational behavior modification (OB Mod) is the systematic
reinforcement of desirable work behavior and the non-reinforcement or
punishment of unwanted work behavior.
2. Positive Reinforcement is the administration of positive consequences that
tend to increase the likelihood of repeating the behavior in a similar setting
a. Law of contingent reinforcement. The law of contingent
reinforcement is the view that, for a reward to have maximum
reinforcing value, it must be delivered only if the desired behavior is
exhibited.
b. Law of immediate reinforcement. The law of immediate
reinforcement states that the more immediate the delivery of a reward
after the occurrence of a desirable behavior, the greater the reinforcing
effect on behavior.
c. Shaping. Shaping is the creation of a new behavior by the positive
reinforcement of successive approximations to the desired behavior.
d. Scheduling Positive Reinforcement. Positive reinforcement can be
given according to either continuous or intermittent schedules.

Continuous reinforcement is a reinforcement schedule that
administers a reward each time a desired behavior occurs.

Intermittent reinforcement is a reinforcement schedule that rewards
behavior only periodically. As shown in Figure 6.3 in the
textbook, intermittent reinforcement can be given according to
fixed or variable schedules.
1. Variable schedules typically results in more consistent patterns
of desired behavior than do fixed reinforcement schedules.
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2. Fixed interval schedules provide rewards at the first appearance
of a behavior after a given time has elapsed.
3. Fixed ratio schedules result in a reward each time a certain
number of the behaviors have occurred.
4. A variable interval schedule rewards behavior at random times.
5. A variable ratio schedule rewards behavior after a random
number of occurrences.
3. Negative Reinforcement (Avoidance)
a. Negative reinforcement is the withdrawal of negative consequences,
which tends to increase the likelihood of repeating the behavior in a
similar setting; it is also known as avoidance
b. The strategy is also sometimes called avoidance because its intent is
for the person to avoid the negative consequences by performing the
desired behavior.
4. Punishment
a. A third OB Mod strategy is punishment. Unlike positive
reinforcement and negative reinforcement, punishment is not intended
to encourage positive behavior but to discourage negative behavior.
b. Punishment is the administration of negative consequences that tend to
reduce the likelihood of repeating the behavior in similar settings.
5. Extinction
a. The final OB Mod reinforcement strategy is extinction – the
withdrawal of the reinforcing consequences for a given behavior.
b. Whereas positive reinforcement seeks to establish and maintain
desirable work behavior, extinction is intended to weaken and
eliminate undesirable behavior.
6. Summary of Strategies
a. Figure 6.4 in the textbook summarizes and illustrates the use of each
OB Mod strategy. They are all designed to direct work behavior
toward practices desired by management.
b. Both positive and negative reinforcement are used to strengthen the
desirable behavior of improving work quality when it occurs.
Punishment is used to weaken the undesirable behavior of high error
rate and involves either administering negative consequences or
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withdrawing positive consequences. Similarly, extinction is used
deliberately to weaken the undesirable high error rate behavior when it
occurs. Not also, however, that extinction is used inadvertently to
weaken the desirable low error rate behavior. Finally, these strategies
may be used in combination as well as independently.
D. Reinforcement Perspectives: Usage and Ethical Issues
1. The effective use of reinforcement strategies can help manage human
behavior at work.
2. Managerial use of these approaches is not without criticism, however, For
example, some reports on the “success” of specific programs involve
isolated cases that have been analyzed without the benefits of scientific
research designs. It is hard to conclude definitely whether the observed
results were caused by reinforcement dynamics.
3. Another major criticism rests with the potential value dilemmas associated
with using reinforcement to influence human behavior at work. For
example, some critics maintain that the systematic use of reinforcement
strategies leads to a demeaning and dehumanizing view of people that
stunts human growth and development.
Teaching Tip: An overview of the essence of behavioral psychology, which is
based largely on classical conditioning, operant conditioning, social learning
theory and other topics covered in this chapter, is available online at
{http://www.valdosta.peachnet.edu/~whuitt/psy702/behsys/behsys.html}.
III.
Content Theories of Motivation
A. Introduction
1. Content theories, as noted earlier, suggest that motivation results from the
individual’s attempts to satisfy needs.
2. Four of the better known context theories have been proposed by Abraham
Maslow, Clayton Alderfer, David McClelland, and Frederick Herzberg.
Each of these scholars offers a slightly different view of the needs
individuals may bring with them to work.
B. Hierarchy of Needs Theory
1. Abraham Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory, as shown in Figure 6.5 in
the textbook, identifies five distinct levels of individual needs: from selfactualization and esteem at the top, to social, safety, and physiological at
the bottom
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Chapter 6: Motivation and Reinforcement
Teaching Tip: A set of links to websites that focus on the work of Abraham
Maslow is available at {http://www.wynja.com/personality/theorists.html}.
The cover page for the site provides a picture of Maslow and a brief except from
one of his most important articles.
Teaching Tip: A very thorough bibliography of the life of Abraham Maslow is
available at {http://www.ship.edu/~cgboeree/maslow.html}.
2. Maslow assumes that some needs are more important than others and must
be satisfied before the other needs can serve as motivators. For example,
physiological needs must be satisfied before safety needs are activated,
safety needs must be satisfied before social needs are activated, and so on.
3. Maslow’s view is quite popular in U.S. firms because it appears easily
implemented. Unfortunately, however, research fails to support the
existence of a precise five-step hierarchy of needs. The needs more likely
operate in a flexible hierarchy.
a. Higher order and lower order needs. Some research suggests that
higher order needs (esteem and self-actualization) tend to become
more important than lower order needs (psychological, safety, and
social) as individuals move up the corporate ladder. Other studies
report that needs vary according to a person’s career stage, the size of
the organization, and even geographical location.
Teaching Tip: In order to reinforce the above concepts pose the following
situation to students: If the student was working full-time for $8/hr. and the
manager offered a $300 bonus for attendance for the quarter, how effective would
that be? If the student was earning $50,000 per year, and the same bonus was
offered, how effective would the incentive be? What does this say about the
importance of matching incentives with the “level” of the worker?
C. ERG Theory
1. Clayton Adlerfer’s ERG theory is also based on needs but differs from
Maslow’s theory in three basic respects.
Teaching Tip: A set of links to websites that focus on the work of Clayton
Adlerfer is available at {http://www.wynja.com/personality/theorists.html}.
The cover page for the site provides a picture of Adlerfer and a brief except
from one of his most important articles.
a. First, the theory collapses Maslow’s five need categories into three:
existence needs, relatedness needs, and growth needs.
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b. Second, whereas Maslow’s theory argues that individuals progress up
the “needs” hierarchy, ERG theory emphasizes a unique frustrationregression component.
c. Third, unlike Maslow’s theory, ERG theory contends that more than
one need may be activated at the same time.
2. Even though more research is needed to shed more light on its validity, the
supporting evidence on ERG theory is encouraging. In particular, the
theory’s allowance for regression back to lower level needs is a valuable
contribution to our thinking.
D. Acquired Needs Theory
1. Psychologist David. I. McClelland identified three needs that he believed
are important for understanding human behavior.
a. Need for achievement (nAch) is the desire to do better, solve
problems, or master complex tasks.
b. Need for affiliation (nAff) is the desire for friendly and warm relations
with others.
c. Need for power (nPower) is the desire to control others and influence
their behavior.
2. McClelland posits that these three needs are acquired over time, as a result
of life experiences. He encourages managers to learn how to identify the
presence of nAch, nAff, and nPower in themselves and in others and to be
able to create work environments that are responsive to the respective
need profiles.
Teaching Tip: Discuss these concepts in detail. Which occupations would be
best suited for individuals with a high need for achievement? A high need for
affiliation? A high need for power? Matching the motivating needs of the
individual with the situation is important not only for the employer, but also for
the individual.
E. Two-Factor Theory
1. Herzberg’s two factor theory identifies job context as the source of job
dissatisfaction and job content as the source of job satisfaction.
Teaching Tip: Herzberg’s seminal work, discussed below, was published in a
Harvard Business Review Article entitled “Can’t buy me love” in January of
1968.
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a. Hygiene factors. According to this theory, hygiene factors are sources
of job dissatisfaction. These factors are associated with the job context
or work setting; that is, they relate more to the environment in which
people work than to the nature of the work itself. In the two-factor
theory, job satisfaction and job dissatisfaction are totally separate
dimensions. Therefore, improving a hygiene factor, such as working
conditions, will not make people satisfied with their work; it will only
prevent them from being dissatisfied.
b. Motivator factors. To improve job satisfaction, the theory directs
attention to an entirely different set of factors – the motivator factors.
These factors are related to job content – what people actually do in
their work. Adding these satisfies or motivators to people’s jobs is
Herzberg’s link to performance. These factors include sense of
achievement, recognition, and responsibility.
Teaching Tip: Many students have a difficult time understanding Herzberg. Ask
the class: How many people feel that you are motivated by money? Several
students will respond. Then ask: after you received your last pay raise – did you
work harder? Use the same approach to discussing the importance of the other
hygiene factors, and motivators. Neither factor, by itself, tends to motivate
behavior.
2. OB scholars continue to debate the merits of the two-factor theory and its
applications. Many are unable to confirm the theory. Many criticize it as
being method bound. This is a serious criticism, for the scientific
approach requires that theories be verifiable under different research
methods.
IV.
Process Theory
A. Introduction
1. The various content theories emphasize the “what” aspects of motivation.
That is, they tend to look for ways to improve motivation by dealing with
activated or deprived needs. Process theories focus on thought processes.
Although there are many process theories, we will focus on equity and
expectancy theory.
B. Equity Theory
1. Adam’s equity theory posits that people will act to eliminate any felt
inequity in the rewards received for their work in comparison with others.
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a. Felt negative inequity exists when an individual feels that he or she has
received relatively less than others have in proportion to work inputs.
b. Felt positive inequity exists when an individual feels that he or she has
received relatively more than others have.
c. When either feeling exists, the individual will likely engage in one or
more of the following behaviors to restore a sense of equity.






Change work inputs (e.g., reduce performance efforts).
Change the outcomes (rewards) received (e.g., ask for a raise).
Leave the situation (e.g., quit).
Change the comparison person (e.g., compare self to a different coworker).
Psychologically distort the comparisons (e.g., rationalize that the
inequity is only temporary and will be resolved in the future).
Take actions to change the inputs or outputs of the comparison
person (e.g., get a co-worker to accept more work).
d. Consistent with the material presented above, research indicates that
people who feel they are overpaid (perceived positive inequity)
increase the quantity or quality of their work, whereas those who feel
they are underpaid (perceived negative inequity) decrease the quantity
or quality of there work.
Teaching Tip: Have students provide examples of inequities that they have
perceived in the workplace, and the effect of those perceptions.
C. Expectancy Theory
1. Victor Vroom’s expectancy theory posits that motivation is a result of a
rational calculation. A person is motivated to the degree that he or she
believes that (1) effort will yield acceptable performance; (2) performance
will be rewarded, and (3) the value of the rewards is highly positive. The
interactive combination of all three influences motivation.
Teaching Tip: An excellent review of the fundamental concepts underlying
expectancy theory, which is very visual and easy to follow, is available online at
{http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Forum/1650/htmlexpectancy.html
a. Expectancy. The probability assigned by an individual that work
effort will be followed by a given level of achieved task performance
is called expectancy.
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Chapter 6: Motivation and Reinforcement
b. Instrumentality. Instrumentality is the probability assigned by the
individual that a given level of achieved task performance will lead to
various work outcomes.
c. Valence. Valence is the value attached by the individual to various
work outcomes.
2. Expectancy logic argues that a manger must try to intervene actively in
work situations to maximize work expectancies, instrumentalities, and
valences that support organizational objectives.
3. A great deal of research on expectancy theory has been conducted, and
review articles are available. One of the more popular modifications of
Vroom’s original version of the theory distinguishes between work
outcomes for calculating valence. Researchers have separated extrinsic
rewards – positively valued work outcomes given to the individual by
some other person – from intrinsic rewards. Intrinsic rewards are
positively valued work outcomes that the individual receives directly as a
result of task performance. A feeling of achievement after accomplishing
a particularly challenging task is an example.
V.
Integrating Motivation Theories
A. Job Satisfaction
1. Job satisfaction is the degree to which individuals feel positively or
negatively about their jobs.
2. Among the many available job satisfaction questionnaires that have been
used over the years, two popular ones are the Minnesota Satisfaction
Questionnaire (MSQ) and the Job Descriptive Index (JDI). Both address
aspects of satisfaction with which good managers should be concerned for
the people reporting to them.
B. Job Satisfaction, Retention, and Performance
1. The importance of job satisfaction can be viewed in the context of two
decisions people make about their work.
a. The first is the decision to belong – that is, to join and remain a
member of an organization.
b. The second is the decision to perform – that is, to work hard in pursuit
of high levels of task performance.
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2. What is the relationship between job satisfaction and performance? There
is considerable debate on this issue, with three alternative points of view
evident.
a. Argument: Satisfaction Causes Performance. If job satisfaction causes
high levels of performance, the message to managers is quite clear. To
increase employees’ work performance, make them happy. Research,
however, indicates that no simple and direct link exists between
individual job satisfaction at one point in time and work performance
at a later point.
b. Argument: Performance Causes Satisfaction. If high levels of
performance cause job satisfaction, the message to mangers is quite
different. Rather than focusing first on peoples’ job satisfaction,
attention should be given to helping people achieve high performance;
job satisfaction would be expected to follow. Research indicates an
empirical relationship between individual performance measured at a
certain time period and later job satisfaction.
c. Argument: Rewards Cause Both Satisfaction and Performance. This
final argument in the job satisfaction-performance controversy is the
most compelling. It suggests that a proper allocation of rewards can
positively influence both performance and satisfaction. The key word
in the previous sentence is proper. Research indicates that people
who receive high rewards report high job satisfaction. But research
also indicates that performance-contingent rewards influence a
person’s work performance. In this case, the size and value of the
reward vary in proportion to the level of one’s performance
accomplishment.
C. Integrated Model of Motivation
1. Figure 6.8 outlines the integrated view. Note that the figure has much in
common with Vroom’s expectancy theory and the Porter-Lawler
framework just discussed.
Teaching Tip: A very provocative interview with Jeffrey Pfeffer on the
importance of utilizing a “people-based strategy’ in an organization is online at
{http://www.strategy-business.com/thoughtleaders/98308/page1.html}. The
article, which touches on the topic of motivation, focuses on the importance of the
commitment and effort of a firm’s employees as a precursor to sustainable
success.
Teaching Tip: A brief review of the theories of motivation discussed in this
chapter is available at: {http://www.churcher.com/FOSM/foundations-of-seniormanagement-7575.htm}.
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Chapter 6: Motivation and Reinforcement
KEY TERMS
Classic conditioning – A form of learning through association that involves the
manipulation of stimuli to influence behavior.
Content theories – Profile different needs that may motivate individual behavior.
Continuous reinforcement – A reinforcement schedule that administers a reward
each time a desired behavior occurs.
Equity theory – Adams’ equity theory posits that people will act to eliminate
any felt inequity in the rewards received for their work in comparison with
others.
ERG theory – Alderfer’s ERG theory identifies existence, relatedness, and growth
needs.
Existence needs – Are desires for physiological and material well-being.
Expectancy – Is the probability that work effort will be followed by performance
accomplishment.
Expectancy theory – Argues that work motivation is determined by individual
beliefs regarding effort/performance relationships and work outcomes.
Extinction – The withdrawal of the reinforcing consequences for a given behavior.
Extrinsic rewards – Rewards that are given to the individual by some other person in
the work setting.
Growth needs – Needs that are desires for continued personal growth and development.
Higher order needs – In Maslow’s hierarchy are esteem and self-actualization.
Hygiene factors – In a job context, hygiene factors are sources of job dissatisfaction
Instrumentality – The probability that performance will lead to various work outcomes.
Intermittent reinforcement – A reinforcement schedule that rewards behavior only
periodically.
Intrinsic rewards – Are rewards that are received by the individual directly through
task performance.
Job satisfaction – The degree to which individuals feel positively or negatively about
their jobs.
Law of contingent reinforcement – Is the view that, for a reward to have maximum
reinforcing value, it must be delivered only if the desired behavior is exhibited.
Law of effect – The observation that behavior that results in a pleasing outcome is likely
to be repeated; behavior that results in an unpleasant outcome is not likely to be
repeated.
Law of immediate reinforcement – Is the concept that the reward must be given as soon
as possible after the desired behavior for maximum reinforcement value.
Lower order needs – In Maslow’s hierarchy are physiological, safety, and social needs.
Maslow’s hierarchy of need theory – A theory of motivation that offers a pyramid of
physiological, safety, social, esteem, and self-actualization needs.
Motivation – Refers to forces within an individual that account for the level, direction,
and persistence of effort expended at work.
Motivator factors – In a job context, motivator factors are the tasks people actually
do and are the sources of job satisfaction.
Need for achievement – Is the desire to do better, solve problems, or master complex
tasks.
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Chapter 6: Motivation and Reinforcement
Need for affiliation – Is the desire for friendly and warm relations with others.
Need for power – The desire to control others and influence their behavior.
Negative reinforcement – The withdrawal of negative consequences, which tends to
increase the likelihood of repeating the behavior in a similar setting; it is also
known as avoidance.
Operant conditioning – The process of controlling behavior by manipulating, or
“operating” on, its consequences.
Organizational behavior modification (OB Mod) – Is the systematic reinforcement
of desirable work behavior and the nonreinforcement or punishment of unwanted
work behavior.
Positive reinforcement – Is the administration of positive consequences that tend to
increase the likelihood of repeating the behavior in similar settings.
Process theories – Seek to understand that thought processes that determines behavior.
Punishment – The administration of negative consequences that tend to reduce the
likelihood of repeating the behavior in similar settings.
Reinforcement – The administration of a consequence as a result of behavior.
Reinforcement theories – Emphasize the means through which operant conditioning
takes place.
Relatedness needs – Needs that are desired for satisfying interpersonal relationships.
Shaping – The creation of a new behavior by the positive reinforcement of successive
approximations to the desired behavior.
Stimulus – Something that incites action.
Two-factor theory – Identifies job context as the source of job dissatisfaction and job
content as the source of job satisfaction.
Valence – The value to the individual of various work outcomes.
SELF-TEST
Suggested Answers to Questions
Multiple Choice
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
B
B
C
A
B
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
D
B
A
B
B
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
F
T
F
F
T
True-False
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
F
F
F
T
F
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Chapter 6: Motivation and Reinforcement
Short Response
21.
Briefly compare and contrast classical conditioning with operant conditioning.
Answer: In classical conditioning, learning occurs through a conditioned stimulus
(a stimulus that was neutral but now draws forth a conditioned response), such as
when dogs are taught to salivate (conditioned response) at the sound of a bell
(conditioned stimulus). Such conditioned responses are involuntary or reflexive.
Operant conditioning emphasizes learning that is achieved when the consequences
of a behavior lead to changes in the probability of its occurrence. Unlike classical
conditioning, the behavior resulting from operant conditioning is voluntary and not
reflexive.
22.
Briefly discuss how reinforcement is linked to extrinsic rewards.
Answer: Reinforcement is linked to extrinsic rewards through the law of effect,
which states that behavior resulting in a positive outcome (or extrinsic reward) is
likely to be repeated and behavior resulting in an unpleasant outcome is not likely
to be repeated.
23.
What is the “frustration-regression” component in Alderfer’s ERG theory?
Answer: The frustration-regression component in Alderfer's ERG theory allows for
a lower level need to become activated or reemphasized upon the frustration of a
higher level one. For example, if a person is thwarted in satisfying growth needs on
the job, such as by a lack of responsibility, the theory suggests they may focus
instead on satisfying existence or social needs, such as asking for greater benefits in
a labor contract.
24.
What is the “multiplier effect” in expectancy theory?
Answer: The multiplier effect links expectancy, instrumentality, and valence
multiplicatively together as determinants of motivation, that is M = E x I x V. This
means that all three must be present and positive for motivation to occur. A
theoretical zero for E, I, and/or V will create motivation equal to zero.
Application Essay
25.
While attending a business luncheon, you overhear the following conversation at a
nearby table. Person A: “I’ll tell you this, if you make your workers happy they’ll
be productive.” Person B: “I’m not so sure, if I make them happy maybe they’ll be
really good about coming to work but not very good about working really hard
while they are there.” Which person do you agree with and why?
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Chapter 6: Motivation and Reinforcement
Answer: Frankly, we can't agree totally with either Person A or Person B. The heart
of the issue rests with something called the "satisfaction-performance controversy"
in our textbook. The controversy involves a core issue in this conversation-whether
or not satisfaction causes performance. It appears that satisfaction alone is no
guarantee of high levels of job performance. Although a satisfied worker is likely
not to quit and to have good attendance, his or her performance still remains
uncertain. In the integrated model of motivation, performance is a function not only
of motivation and effort, but also of individual attributes organizational support and
reinforcement. Thus we would be cautious in focusing only on creating satisfied or
happy workers. We would try to create satisfied workers and high-performing ones.
We would try to make sure that contingent rewards for performance create
satisfaction. We would also try to make sure that the satisfied worker has the right
abilities, training, and other support needed to perform a job really well. Assuming
that satisfaction alone will always lead to high performance seems risky at best; it
leaves too many other important considerations left untouched.
Teaching Tip Scenario:
Assume that you know an individual who has a habit (such as smoking) that is
irritating and offensive to you. You have decided that you want the person to cease that
behavior. Discuss how you would use Operant Conditioning to change the behavior.
Discuss your reinforcement strategy(s) and scheduling of reinforcement.
Case in point
The Founder and CEO of POLARIS, Page Dawson, is trying to use her leadership skills
to bring about a major change at POLARIS: the use of a type of group known as
“teams”. Somehow she needs to communicate the benefits of teams to POLARIS
managers and employees so that they will be motivated to successfully implement the
team concept. Clearly motivation is going to be important in gaining support for the
change and its successful implementation.
Page overheard some of the employees discussing the rumor that POLARIS would be
implementing the use of teams. One employee said: “I think everything is working okay
the way things are right now. I do not see the benefit is the use of teams. How is it going
to help me? Working conditions are fine, I have no complaint about anything AND I do
not see how I could be any more productive than I already am under the way things are
done now. In fact, it could mess me up. I like to work independently and not be held
back by other people.” The employees then went on to discuss the various things, which
could go wrong if they were organized into teams. They seemed to feel that it could not
work so they did not want to bother trying the approach.
Page thought that maybe the best way to convince the employees that it would work
would be to provide them with an opportunity to have positive experiences working in
groups. It would be important to control events in such a way that the experiences would
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be positive and could be used as the basis for selling the team concept rather than
providing an argument for resisting change.
She selected people she knew to be creative and artistic but not normally able to express
that creativity on the job. And put them together into a temporary group to accomplish a
task, which could be quickly completed and then used a company meeting to praise their
accomplishment. She formed other such temporary groups and she frequently would
drop in on their activities to “catch them doing things right” so that she could praise them
for what they were accomplishing and encourage them to do even more. Instead of
encouraging “tattling,” she encouraged employees to provide written recognition and
thanks for what other had done to help them. She erected a large sign outside the
building facing the employee parking lot where she could provide recognition to group
accomplishments. More and more people began to feel that not only could they do more
but that it would pay off if they did more.
Still, not everything was perfect in the various work groups activities: there were still
occasional complaints that some people who did less work were getting the same praise
or bonuses as those did more work.
Multiple Choice Questions:
26:
In trying to motivate her employees, Page recognized that there might be an
opportunity in that some of her employees “… creative and artistic but not
normally able to express that creativity on the job” so she sought to find a way
those needs could be met. She was using the ideas of Maslow who set forth the
concept of:
A) Hierarchy of needs.
B) Maintenance and motivational needs.
C) ERG.
D) Valence.
Answer: A)
Page: 6-111
Defend your answer:
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
27:
Page noted that employees were satisfied with pay and working conditions but
that meeting such maintenance needs would not motivate them to change. In
essence, she recognized a concept set forth by:
A) Alderfer
B) Herzberg.
C) Likert.
D) Maslow.
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Chapter 6: Motivation and Reinforcement
Answer: B)
Page: 6-114
Defend your answer:
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
True /False Questions:
28:
In helping employees meet motivational needs through job content, Page was
using extrinsic rewards.
Answer: False
Page: 6-118
Defend your answer:
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
29:
By constantly attempting to reward and recognize group accomplishments, Page
was using the law of effect.
Answer: True
Page: 6-105
Defend your answer:
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
Fill in the Blank Questions:
30:
Page attempted to use ___________ in rewarding desired behavior and – to the
maximum extent possible, she tried to do so continuously.
Answer: Reinforcement
Page: 6-106
Defend your answer:
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
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Chapter 6: Motivation and Reinforcement
31:
The ___________ model explains why Page encountered “complaints that some
people who did less work were getting the same praise or bonuses as those who
did more work.”
Answer: Equity
Page: 6-115
Defend your answer:
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
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