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Understanding Britain. John Randle
CHAPTER 1: THE FOUNDING OF BRITAIN
cremation provokes a decrease in the number of
archaeological discoveries.
CHAPTER 1
THE FOUNDING OF BRITAIN
Prehistory
During The glacial periods Britain was connected to
the continent by stretches of land in the present
Channel and North Sea areas, so that animals and
humans were able to move from the continent to the
Britain. There are firm evidences that human
occupation increased in Britain from 200,000 to
150,000 BC.
Palaeolithic man hunted and collected. Many
Palaeolithic settlements have been discovered at the
shore of lakes, where they are supposed to hunt
animals when they came to drink.
In the following era, the Mesolithic period, men had
to adapt to post-glacial conditions in which a drop of
food supply occurred. The discovery of axes
provided Mesolithic men to make clearings in the
woods.
In 4,000 BC a new people joined the scanty
Mesolithic population. These newcomers were
Neolithic people who knew about forest clearance,
sowing, keeping animals, and pottery. Farming
expanded throughout south England and tools
became more sophisticated.
The most spectacular achievement in the Neolithic
era was the monumental architecture. They have left
remains of causewayed camps1, burial mounds
(barrows), chambered tombs and ritual centres called
“henges”. Over four thousand years ago the Neolithic
people of Britain began the construction of
Stonehenge in Salisbury Plain; it dates from before
The development of trade in the 8th C BC and the
settlement of new people in Britain introduced the
Iron Age in the isle.
2,000 BC. It is one of the most mysterious and
complex archaeological ritual sites in the world.
The discovery of flagstones2 helped the construction
of chambered tombs. Chambers were used, and reused, for the burial of large groups of people, such as
families or tribal groups.
Neolithic people saw the arrival of a new people in
2,000 BC: the Beaker3 folk. These people know how
to extract and work metal. They made copper first
and, later, bronze. These metals improved their tools,
their decorative objects, and were used in musical
instruments too. The Beaker folk seem to have
dominated, and then merged with the local
population. They continued to use Stonehenge, but
they did not share the Neolithic burial rites. They
buried their dead in single shallow graves with their
personal possessions.
Some Early Bronze Age graves have yielded great
riches including gold work which indicates that there
were amore sophisticated and defined aristocracy
than in Neolithic times. Later Bronze Age society
(1400-700 BC) seems to have developed more
slowly, and this together with the burial practice of
At the end of the 2nd C BC, the Belgic tribes arrived
and settled in the south England. Ancient ways of life
were upset with the coming of the Belgic tribes.
Kingdoms led by a martial aristocracy emerged
throughout all the country. Belgic tribes were very
powerful warriors, so that conquers were easy for
them, despite the resistance of the native population.
Equal in power to the aristocracy, were the Druids
who supervised worship of supernatural and magical
forces which generally required human sacrifices.
Celtic hillforts appear along the whole British
landscape. These constructions were not only
defensive constructions, but a place where the
community could assemble for social and religious
functions. These hillforts were formidable
strongholds, containing buildings for the population,
ample spaces for herds and the stores for their grain.
Nevertheless, the following invaders, the Romans,
had a military technology superior to Celtic defences.
The Romans
Romans first landed in Britain in 55 BC and their
main aim was to assess the wealth of the country and
later join Britain to the Roman Empire.
Julius Caesar defeat Britons easily, but he was forced
to retire. In 54 BC Julius Caesar returned and
marched through the south of England.
Cassivellaunus, leader of the Catuvellauni people,
mounted stiff opposition, but finally Cassivellaunus
2
Spanish losa
The beaker was a characteristic drinking vessel used by this
people. And it was generally buried with their dead.
3
1
Camps communicated by paths.
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Understanding Britain. John Randle
CHAPTER 1: THE FOUNDING OF BRITAIN
was taken prisoner. Romans took hostages4 and
imposed an annual tribute to the Britons. Roman
troops retired.
Trade between Britain and Rome increased and the
annexation of Britain to the Empire was being
planned by Roman leaders.
The conquest of most of Britain came in AD 43,
when Aulus Plautuis, under the command of the
Emperor Claudius, arrived in Britain with 40,000
men. Roman troops established control over the
south-east of Britain and Claudius himself arrived in
Britain. He received the submission of many Briton
Kings and then left. Nevertheless, there were British
leaders who still resisted such as Caracatus, who
finally was taken prisoner in AD 51, and Boudicca,
Queen of the Iceni People. Iceni were harshly treated
by Romans and their revenge was terrible: in AD 61,
Colchester, St Albans and London were destroyed
and some 70,000 people killed. Finally Boudicca’s
revolt was suppressed and she took poison.
Southern Britain settled down to peace and rapid
Romanisation. Where possible, Romans ruled
through the existing upper class, which was
encouraged to adopt Latin language, Roman
costumes, dresses and the luxurious Roman lifestyle.
The northern area of Scotland was not conquered by
the Romans; the fierce Picts, a Celtic people, resisted
the Roman attacks. Nevertheless, Romans had
control over the lowlands of Scotland.
From AD 122 to127,
Romans constructed the
Hadrian’s Wall: a military
4
Prisoners.
defence from the peoples in the north of Scotland.
The wall extended from the Tyne to Solway, and it
has different functions: it divided two tribes, the
Brigantes y Selgovae, and also prevented them to
make an alliance against Rome; and it separated the
fierce Picts from the roman population.
The fiercest allies of the Picts were the Scotti. They
lived in Ireland until the third century but then they
moved to the western coast of Scotland. Ireland was
divided into warlike population from Celtic or Iron
culture. Despite the power of the Roman legions,
Ireland was not conquered by Rome.
The Romans established a flourishing province in
Britain. They founded the first cities: Londinium
(London) became the provincial capital and centre of
trade in northern Europe. London became exporter of
corn, lead and tin. Villas the characteristic Roman
establishment in the countryside spread throughout
Britain.
Instead of taking advantage of the Roman
withdrawal, Picts and Scots quarrelled with each
other until the 9th C. Saxons came across the North
Sea and attacked east and south-east coasts of
Britain.
Vortigern, a British leader, employed two Saxons
warriors, Hengist and Horsa, to defend the country.
But soon they turned against Vortigern and
appropriated the lands in the south-east and they
continued the invasions. By 450, Essex, Sussex and
Kent were controlled by the Saxons. In the west, the
Saxons faced the troops of King Arthur who
mounted stiff opposition. In 503, King Arthur
defeated the Saxons in the battle at Mount Badon.
The west remained British, though intermarriage and,
later, Christianisation lessened the differences
between the two peoples.
The rest of England, now so called by the arrival of
one of the Saxons tribes, the Angles, and the
lowlands of Scotland, fell to the invaders.
In the 4th C was threatened not only by Picts and
Scots, but also by the Saxons, different people who
came from present-day Denmark, north-west
Germany and the Netherlands. In 367 there was a
combined attack on Britain by Picts, Scots and
Saxons. In 410, the Roman army withdrew, and the
Romano-British population had to defence
themselves from the invaders. Without Roman
military help, Roman civilization in Britain
disintegrated.
Roman Britain enjoyed a peaceful time and good
government. Celtic population seemed to have
retained their own languages, and Latin was confined
to the upper classes of society. Public buildings and
sanitation systems developed in towns where only a
minority of the population lived.
The Saxons and Vikings
By the 7th C, England was
divided
into
seven
kingdoms, the Heptarchy.
The small kingdoms were:
East-Anglia, Kent, Essex
and Sussex. And the three
powers
were:
Northumbria, Mercia and
Wessex.
Saxons abandoned the
Roman villas and towns
and settled in villages and homestead 5. They were
excellent farmers and they know how to work the
lands. The heavy plough was their main innovation
5
Farmsteads, farms, farmhouses.
2
Understanding Britain. John Randle
CHAPTER 1: THE FOUNDING OF BRITAIN
which helped
production.
so
much
for
the
agricultural
The Saxons lived in strong family and tribal units.
Their major feature was the loyalty bounds to a chief
or king. They introduced the wergild, a custom
which dictated that a man who committed a murder
should pay an economical compensation to the
family of the dead, rather than be executed. But, on
the other hand, there are evidences of burial of living
people, servants or wives, at the funeral of a great
person. The Sutton Hoo treasure is one of the most
spectacular hoards of Europe of this time. It probably
belonged to king Raedwald (d.625) of East-Anglia.
Christianisation came to England in 597, when St
Augustine being not able to enter London,
established the ecclesiastical capital at Canterbury.
Conversion was accepted by the Saxon Kings,
because they thought that Christianity would
reinforce their authority and their hierarchical
structure by means of educated advisers and
administrators.
While southern England was converted by Roman
Christians, the northern areas were converted by
monks of Ireland and Scotland. Christianity had been
brought to Ireland by St Patrick in 432. In Ireland
and Scotland and northern England, Christianity
followed the Celtic ritual, meanwhile in the rest of
England, it followed the Roman rite. There were
many differences between these rites such as the date
of Eastern, and the austere character of the Celtic
church. Finally, these differences caused a split in
northern and southern churches that was solved in
the Synod of Whitby in 663. It determined that the
English Church as a whole should follow the Roman
rite, although Celtic rite persisted in Ireland,
Scotland and Wales.
Christianity inspired great works of art. Northumbria
enjoyed a Golden Age in the 7th C, when the
monastic centres produced manuscripts and copies of
the scriptures wonderfully enriched and illuminated.
The monastery of Lindisfarne became the most
important centres because of its production of
manuscripts. In the 8th C, the centre of culture moved
to Canterbury. The monastery of Monkwearmouth
was the home of the reputed scholar the Venerable
Bede, who completed his major work in 731,
Historia Ecclessiastica Gentis Anglorum. Bede gives
an outline of the English history from a Saxon
perspective.
In the 8th C, a new wave of invaders came to
England, the Vikings6. These people were heathen
tribes from present-day Norway, Sweden, and
Denmark highly skilled in fishing and fighting. They
attacked every coast they landed. In 793, the Vikings
shocked Christendom: they destroyed the monastery
of Lindisfarne and killed the monks who lived there.
In 865, Vikings began the great invasion of
Northumbria and East-Anglia. Scotland and the Isle
of Man were also conquered. Ireland was completely
raided.
But Vikings encountered
great
opposition
in
Wessex ruled by King
Alfred the Great, a skilled
warrior and a learned
man. In 878, the Peace of
Edington divided England
in
two
areas:
the
Danelaw, the Viking area
(East-Anglia and part of
Northumbria); and the British zone. Besides, the
6
Viking Prince, Guthrum accepted conversion to
Christianity. This fact and the origin of both people,
the Germanic stock, favoured the fusion with the
local population. Their tongues would later form the
basis of English.
Alfred’s dynasty, the House of Wessex, became the
ruler of the Saxon England. Alfred’s grandson,
Edgar, was crowned King of a united England in
973.
Edgar’s son, Ethelred II, popularly known as “the
Unready” was weak ruler. He failed to the Vikings
attacks and he was forced to pay a tribute to the
Vikings, the Danegeld. Ethelred II died in 1016, and
his son Edmund lived only few months longer.
Saxon resistance collapsed, and Canute King of the
Vikings became ruler of a great empire including
England, Scotland, Denmark and Scandinavia.
Canute offered strong support to the Church. The
empire Canute achieved, disintegrated at Canute’s
dead in 1035. His two sons, Harold “Harefoot”
(reigned 1035-1040) and Hardicanute (reigned 10401043) ruled England in succession.
Neither Harold nor Hardicanute had any children.
Thus, the English crown came back to the House of
Wessex in the figure of King Edward “the
Confessor”. He was the son of Ethelred II and Emma
of Normandy. Edward faced several problems that
were in fact resolved by the powerful William
Godwin, the adviser and ruler de facto of England.
Godwin tied up with the royal family through his
daughter who was married with King Edward. But
this marriage was unfruitful, they had no offspring.
England would face one of the most important
episodes of its history at this moment: the problem of
the succession to the throne will decide the future of
England.
Also called Danes
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Understanding Britain. John Randle
CHAPTER 1: THE FOUNDING OF BRITAIN
Two claimants to the throne appeared: Harold
Godwinson, the son of William Godwin and brotherin-law of Edward; and William, Duke of Normandy,
cousin of King Edward.
Richard I
Duke of No rmandy
“The Fearless”
William
Godwin
Harold
Godwinson
Ethelred II m. Emma
“The Unready”
(r.979-1016)
Edith m. Edward
(r.1066)
“The Confessor”
(r.1042-1066)
Robert
“The Magnificent”
William
Duke of No rmandy
William’s claim was reinforced when Harold
Godwinson shipwrecked and became prisoner of
William. He forced Harold to swear an oath
recognising William as the rightful heir to the throne.
Nevertheless, nor Harold neither William was the
natural heir of Edward, but they thought they were.
In January 1066, King Edward died and Harold was
crowned king in London; and William immediately
began to prepare England’s invasion.
The Normans
King Harold had to face two threads: William, Duke
of Normandy and his half-brother Earl Tostig, whom
Harold had formerly dispossessed and driven out of
the country. Tostig allied with Harold “Hardrada”,
king of Norway, and enjoyed the support of the king
of the Scots.
In September 1066, Tostig and “Hardrada” landed in
the north of England. King Harold was in the south
awaiting William’s invasion; but he had to move
rapidly to the north to fight Tostig’s troops. Finally
both bands met at Stamford Bridge in Yorkshire on
the 25 September. Harold defeated and killed Tostig
and “Hardrada”; and the plan to revive Canute’s
empire was abandoned by the Vikings.
Meanwhile, on the 28 September, Duke William
landed at Pevensey Bay on the Sussex coast with
8000 men. Norman army was formed by knights who
fought on horseback and both rider and horse were
covered with chain-mail. Harold’s men were foot
soldiers armed with axes and spades. Harold’s troops
marched rapidly southwards to confront William.
The two armies met at Hastings on 14 October. After
a long battle William and the Normans won. Harold
died after an arrow hit him in the eye. William
moved to London, and was crowned king in
Westminster Abbey by the Archbishop of York on
Christmas Day 10667.
English people were discontented and provoked
revolts which were easily suppressed by William
“The Conqueror”. The popular revolts were
definitively dissolved in 1071, after the revolt led by
Hareward the Wake in East-Anglia.
Hastings is a turning point in the history of England.
The native aristocracy was replaced by the French
aristocracy which moved from Normandy to
England. Language was a social marker: the new
rulers spoke French and the subjects spoke English.
A new social order came also from Normandy: the
Feudal System. Clearly defined social classes
appeared in English society:
7




The King: at the top of society.
Greta nobles and barons surrounded the king,
and they were considered upon the king as nearequals.
Lesser lords who lived in manor or villages.
Ordinary people or peasants owed services to the
lesser lords. They were Saxon population and
they cannot move from one manor to another
without the permission of their lords.
The Normans needed a great army in England,
between 4000 and 7000 knights. A lord would
supply his overlord or baron with a fixed number of
knights, and the baron would supply the king with a
number of knights. Thus, the king could form an
army in times of trouble. Nut at the same time,
barons, lords or lesser lords could raise an army
against weak kings.
Around the king was the royal curia, or court, which
was formed by advisers and officials. In 1086, the
king’s advisers compiled the Domesday Book in
which population and wealth data were recorded.
William “The Conqueror” died in 1087, in Rouen,
Normandy. This control of lands both in England and
France would provoke great problems, thus, as a
consequence, wars between England and France
would become a commonplace from this point in
history on.
Understanding Britain. John Randle
The battle of Hastings is depicted in the Bayeux Tapestry
4
Understanding Britain. John Randle
CHAPTER 1: THE FOUNDING OF BRITAIN
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1035-1040
1040-1042
1042-1066
1066
1066-1087
Kings of England
Egbert
Aethelwulf
Aethelbald
Aethelbert
Aethelred
Alferd, “The Great”
Edward “The Elder”
Aethelstan
Edmund, “The Magnificent”
Eadred
Eadwig
Edgar “The Peaceable”
Edward “The Martyr”
Aethelred II “The Unready”
Edmund “Ironside”
Canute “The Great”
Harald “Harefoot”
Hardicanute
Edward “The Confessor”
Harold II
William I “The Conqueror”
House of Wessex
Danish Kings
House of Wessex
(restored)
55-54 BC
43
50
61
122
After 296
367-369
409
410
c.450
455
c.500
597
663
731
793-795
878
899
959
973
991
1002
1003
1016
1035
1040
1042
1066
Chronology
Expeditions of Caesar
Claudian invasion
Foundation of London
Revolt of Boudicca
Hadrian’s Wall
Britain becomes a civil diocese of four provinces
“Barbarian Conspiracy”
Britain revolts from Constantine III: end of Roman rule in Britain
Roman troops withdrew from Britain
The “adventus Saxonum”: Hengest and Horsa settle in Kent (Traditional date)
Hengest rebels against Vortigern
Battle of Mount Badon
St Augustine’s mission arrives in Kent
Synod of Whitby
Bede’s Historia Eccesiastica Gentis Anglorum
Danish raids on Lindisfarne, Jarrow and Iona
Alfred defeats the Danes at Edington, Guthrum is Christianised
Death of Alfred, Edward “The Elder” becomes king of Wessex
Edgar becomes king
Edgar is crowned and consecrated and receives the submission of the British
princes.
The Danes defeat Alderman Byrhtnoth
Aethelred orders the massacre of all Danes in England
King Swein invades Britain
Canute defeats Edmund at Ashigdom, Canute becomes king of all England
Harold “Harefoot” becomes king
Hardicanute becomes king
Edward “The Confessor” becomes king, the house of Wessex restored
Edward dies, Harold Godwinson becomes king
Stamford Bridge, Yorkshire, Tostig and “Hardrada” killed by Harold
Hastings, William, Duke of Normandy, killed Harold and becomes king of
England
5