Download Tripken chapter 7 Altered States Discuss the history of psychology`s

Tripken
chapter 7 Altered States
Discuss the history of psychology’s study of consciousness, and contrast conscious and
unconscious information processing.
 Psychology began as the study of consciousness, our awareness of ourselves and our
environment.
But the difficulty of scientifically studying consciousness led many psychologists to turn to direct
observations of behavior, and by the middle of the twentieth century psychology was defined as the
science of behavior.
By 1960, mental concepts began to reenter psychology, and today, investigating states of mind is
again one of psychology’s pursuits.
Advances in neuroscience made it possible to relate brain activity to various mental states—waking,
sleeping, dreaming.
Forms of Consciousness
AP Photo/ Ricardo Mazalan
Stuart Franklin/ Magnum Photos
Christine Brune
Bill Ling/ Digital Vision/ Getty Images
Consciousness, modern psychologists believe, is
an awareness of ourselves and our environment.
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Consciousness is a state of awareness:
It is an organisms awareness of ourselves, mental state and our environment
If we are biologically UNCONSCIOUS WE ARE W/O AWARENESS OF OURSELVES
AND/OR OUR ENVIRONEMNT
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Changing your mental process—by sleeping, meditating, undergoing hypnosis, or
taking drugs—alters your state of consciousness.
Consciousness is intangible, but we know it exists
The text observes that while conscious awareness enables us to exert voluntary
control and to communicate our mental states to others, consciousness is but
the tip of the information-processing iceberg.
We process a great deal of information outside awareness.

For example, as noted in Chapter 6 (Lecture/Discussion Topic: Inattentional
Blindness), Arien Mack cites evidence for unconscious perception. Recall the video
where the gorilla walked through the basketball toss……
Conscious information processing enables us to exert voluntary control and to
communicate our mental states to others.
It takes place in sequence, is relatively slow, and has limited capacity.
Beneath the surface, faster unconscious processing occurs simultaneously on
many parallel tracks.
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chapter 7 Altered States
For example, when we meet someone, we instantly and unconsciously react to
gender, race, and appearance, and then become aware of our response.
This is why. Like it or not, we never get a second chance to make a first
impression!!!
IMPORTANT-------Various States of Consciousness:
Consciousness and Information Processing:
1.) Sleep and dreams – Biological Rhythms, Sleep Disorders, Dreams
2.) Hypnosis:
3.) Psychoactive Drugs
Neuroscience & Consciousness
HELLO!!!!!!!!!!!
Neuroscientists believe that consciousness
emerges from the interaction of individual
brain events much like a chord that is created
from different musical notes.
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** Levels of Consciousness: actually a stream w/o clear cut offs – it is a continuum / TEST
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Consciousness: Our awareness of ourselves and our environment.
Biological Rhythms: Periodic physiological fluctuations.
Includes:
1. 28 day – GIRLS!!!!!!!!!!!!!
2. 24 hour - DAILY
3. and 90 minute cycles - SLEEP
Distinguish types of biological rhythms, and give an example of each.
Over varying periods of time, physiological fluctuations called biological rhythms affect
human functioning.
1. For example, on an annual cycle, people may experience seasonal variations in
appetite, sleep length, and moods.
2. Humans also experience 24-hour cycles of varying alertness, body temperature, and
growth hormone secretion.
3. Finally, people move through various stages of sleep in 90-minute cycles.
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Rhythm of Sleep
Circadian Rhythms occur on a 24-hour cycle and
include sleep and wakefulness, which are
disrupted during transcontinental flights.
Illustration © Cynthia Turner 2003
CRITICAL
Light triggers the suprachiasmatic nucleus to decrease
(morning) melatonin from the pineal gland
and increase (evening) it at night fall.
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Describe the cycle of our circadian rhythm, and identify some events that can
disrupt this biological clock.
Our daily schedule of waking and sleeping is governed by a biological clock
known as circadian rhythm.

This cycle is in part a response to light striking the retina, signaling the
suprachiasmatic nucleus in the hypothalamus to trigger alterations in the
level of biochemical substances, including decreased output of sleep-inducing
melatonin by the pineal gland.
The suprachiasmatic nucleus, or nuclei, (SCN), a tiny region on the brain's
midline in a shallow impression of the optic chiasm, is responsible for
controlling endogenous circadian rhythms.
The neuronal and hormonal activities it generates regulate many different body
functions over a 24-hour period.

Our body temperature rises as morning approaches, peaks during the day,
dips for a time in early afternoon, and then begins to drop again before
we go to sleep.
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Twenty four hour Cycle – human 24 hour cycle that controls alertness,
temperature, growth hormones
The cycle lasts approximately 24 hours, but it can be disrupted by bright light, time
changes, and alterations in our sleep schedule (such as occurs with jet lag).
Recent research indicates that thinking is sharpest and memory most accurate when
people are at their peak in circadian arousal.
The Neural Basis of Biological Rhythms
Are biological rhythms a property of all body cells or are they localized in the
brain?
Curt Richter was the first to attempt to locate biological clocks in the brain.

After damaging the hypothalamus of wild rats with electric current, he found that
the animals lost their circadian rhythms.

By making more specific lesions, other researchers discovered that a region called
the suprachiasmatic nucleus is a biological clock.
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How do we measure sleep?
A. Measuring Sleep -- Scientists measure sleep with the following:
1) Electroencephalogram (EEG) -- a device that measures the electrical activity of
the brain. This is the measure scientists rely on most when determining which stage of
sleep a person is in.
When using the EEG, we look at each wave in terms of the:
a) frequency - how many times the wave occurs within a specific period
b) the amplitude - the size of the wave.
These two submeasures help us identify wave types so that, in turn, we can identify
different stages of sleep.
2) Electrooculagram (EOG) -- a device that measures eye activity.
During different stages of sleep, our eyes move in distinct ways.
For example, during Delta / slow wave sleep (SWS), we have slow, rolling
eye movements
However, during REM sleep, our eye movements are much more rapid and
occur in a sharp, back and forth way.
3) Electromyogram (EMG) -- this device is used to measure the muscle activity that
occurs during sleep, and is particularly helpful when attempting to growth hormones
identify REM sleep.
4) Electrocardiogram (ECG or EKG) -- as you most likely know, the
electrocardiogram is a measure of heart muscle contractions.
5) Temperature - body temperature is connected with sleep via the circadian rhythms
(your bodies internal, biological clock).
Do not write this down----just for interest!!!
Species
Average Total Sleep
Average Total Sleep Time
Time
(Hours/day)
(% of 24 hr)
Brown Bat
82.9%
19.9 hr
Giant Armadillo
75.4%
18.1 hr
Tiger
65.8%
15.8 hr
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Gerbil
54.4%
13.1 hr
Cat
50.6%
12.1 hr
Cheetah
50.6%
12.1 hr
Human (elderly)
22.9%
5.5 hr
African Elephant
13.8%
3.3 hr
Horse
12.0%
2.9 hr
Giraffe
7.9%
1.9 hr
Types of Sleep (although we use many measures in combination to determine
when a person is in which stage of sleep) here we are going to discuss only
the EEG, since this is the most prominent feature of sleep.
Ψ When we use percentages of wave occurrences, we mean that those
percentages of brain waves were present in a specific time period of
brain wave activity - typically a 50 second period.
Ψ For example, if we say that the stage is made up of 50% Alpha waves, it
means that in a 50 second period, 50% of all the brain waves measurable
in that period are Alpha waves)
GET IT??????????????????????
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List the stages of the sleep cycle, and explain how they differ.
We pass through a cycle of five sleep stages that total about 90 minutes….SEE OVERHEAD
There are two main categories of sleep:
1. Non-Rapid Eye Movement or Non-REM (NREM)
NREM sleep contains all stages of sleep except REM
2. Rapid Eye Movement (REM).
As we lie awake and relaxed, before we sleep, our EEG shows relatively slow alpha waves.
Stage 1 / ALPHA / also known as wake but relaxed and then slip into BETA.
Characterization of ALPHA (alpha = awake…there’s your trick) to BETA/Stage 1:
hypnogogic hallucinations – sensory experiences that occur w/o sensory stimulus
1.
2.
3.
4.
sleep talking – mom walks in and you are just falling asleep and you say stupid stuff….
hypnic jerk I scare the heck outta yourself…
slow down of biological functions (e.g., blood pressure, heart rate, respiration)
& a decrease in temperature.
In this stage your brain wave activity is composed mainly of alpha and beta wave activity.
However, do not take this to mean that when you sleep your brain is inactive.
Ψ In fact, your brain is very active in certain stages of sleep; it is just not in a "waking"
state.
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Awake & Alert
During strong mental engagement, the brain
exhibits low amplitude and fast, irregular beta
waves (15-30 cps). An awake person involved in a
conversation shows beta activity.
Beta Waves
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To BETA / Stage 1 - this is the transition stage from
wake/ALPHA to sleep/BETA.
It is that stage in which you are aware that you are about to fall asleep, but haven't just yet.
Approximately 5% of sleep is stage 1, and is characterized by increased amounts of Theta
waves and a reduction in Alpha and Beta waves.
Awake but Relaxed
When an individual closes his eyes but remains
awake, his brain activity slows down to a large
amplitude and slow, regular alpha waves (9-14
cps). A meditating person exhibits an alpha brain
activity.
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1. Stage 1 sleep is characterized by fantastic images resembling hallucinations.
2. Stage 2 sleep (the stage in which we spend the most time – 45%) follows about 20
minutes later, with its characteristic sleep spindles.
Characteristics of Stage 2
Ψ
Ψ
Ψ
Ψ
Ψ
Waves are slower (see some theta waves)
sleep spindles
K-complexes
sleep talking
biological functions continue to slow
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Stage 2 is characterized by a mix of Theta, sleep spindles, K-Complexes, & some Delta
waves.
1. Sleep Spindles -- these are short episodes that look (the EEG that is) like small footballs.
When looking at the EEG, if you notice an area in which the amplitude (the height of the
wave) increases little by little, and the frequency (how close each wave is to the others)
decreases slightly, thus giving it the shape of a football, and then goes back to normal,
you know you are looking at a spindle.
2. K-Complex -- these are the surest indicators of stage 2 sleep.
When a K-Complex occurs, there is a sudden rise in wave amplitude (height) so the wave
goes high above baseline, and sharp decrease in frequency (so the wave looks very
wide). Then there is a sudden decrease in amplitude (so the wave now goes well below
baseline) and then back to baseline.
In addition, there is often a little spike in the wave when it is moving from high above
baseline to far below baseline that gives it its characteristic "K" shape.
If you are monitoring a persons sleeping EEG, sleep spindles are a nice indicator of Stage
2, but when you see K-Complexes, you know the person is definitely in Stage 2.
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Sleep Stages 1-2
During early, light sleep (stages 1-2) the brain
enters a high-amplitude, slow, regular wave form
called theta waves (5-8 cps). A person who is
daydreaming shows theta activity.
Theta Waves
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3&4. Starting in Stage 3 and increasingly in Stage 4, the brain emits large, slow delta
waves.
These two slow-wave sleep / sws stages last for about 30 minutes during which we are
hard to awaken.
Ψ 7% OF OUR TOTAL SLEEP TIME
Stage 3 is characterized by:
Ψ approximately 20-50% delta waves within minimal amplitude
Ψ Transition stage to deep sleep
Ψ See first signs of delta wave
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Ψ biological functions continue to slow
Sleep Stages 3-4
During deepest sleep (stages 3-4), brain activity
slows down. There are large-amplitude, slow
delta waves (1.5-4 cps).
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Stage 4 - This stage is sometimes considered that "true" slow wave sleep/SWS stage.
We spend approximately 13% of our sleeping time in Stage 4.
The sleeper has definitely entered Stage 4 when there are more than 50% delta waves.
Stage 4 is characterized by:
Deep sleep
All delta waves
bedwetting & sleep walking most likely happens here
Biological function controls are at their lowest.
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About an hour after falling asleep, we begin approximately 10 minutes of REM (rapid eye
movement) sleep in which most dreaming occurs.
1. In this fifth stage (also known as paradoxical sleep), we are internally aroused but
outwardly paralyzed.
Ψ Flaccid Paralysis - In fact, did you know that you are virtually paralyzed during
REM? It's true.
Ψ There are many theories about why this is so, but regardless of why we are, the
fact is that we are.
Ψ Discuss Evolutionary Psi and predator protection and acting out dreams we
would be exhausted!!
2. The sleep cycle repeats several times during a normal night’s sleep, with periods of
Stage 4 sleep progressively shortening and periods of REM sleep lengthening.
REM: Occurs in regular intervals every 60-90 minutes.
Ψ REM sleep has its own unique pattern of brain waves.
Ψ The waves look much like the teeth of a saw (means that the waves are fast and close
together) and the pattern looks almost identical to stage 1 or wake.
How then can we differentiate between REM and Stage 1 or wake?
We rely on the other measures - during REM, muscle activity drops to almost nothing.
Ψ In addition, eye movements become more frequent and, instead of occurring a
slow rolling fashion like in other stages, they are more sharp and occur in a fast,
back and forth motion.
REM cycle length seems to be dependent on brain size:
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Ψ Rats = approx every 12 minutes.
Ψ Also humans have approx twice the amount of REM as other species.
After stage 4, the sleeper moves back to stages 3, stage 2, & then into REM sleep.
Review:
Characteristics of REM Sleep:
Rapid eye movement
dreaming;
erections in males
paralysis
Also called "paradoxical sleep" because while the person is totally asleep,
there biological function and brain waves appear more like a person who is
awake.
A full sleep-cycle takes about 90 minutes.
As the cycles continue throughout the night, stage 4 sleep gets shorter and
REM sleep gets longer.
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HYPNOGOGIC Sleep - Between waking and sleep is a twilight zone in which we may
experience fantastic images different from both daydreams and night dreams.
We may have the sensation of falling or of floating weightlessly.
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Sleep Stages During the Night
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HANDOUT your guys need to independently study in your own time….this is a gift!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
Comparison of Physiological Changes During NREM and REM Sleep
Physiological
Process
During NREM
During REM
brain activity
decreases from
wakefulness
increases in motor and sensory areas, while
other areas are similar to NREM
heart rate
slows from wakefulness
increases and varies compared with NREM
blood pressure
decreases from
wakefulness
increases (up to 30 percent) and varies from
NREM
blood flow to
brain
does not change from
wakefulness in most
regions
increases by 50 to 200 percent from NREM,
depending on brain region
respiration
decreases from
wakefulness
increases and varies from NREM, but may
show brief stoppages (apnea); coughing
suppressed
airway
resistance
increases from wakefulness increases and varies from wakefulness
body
temperature
sexual arousal
is regulated at lower set
is not regulated; no shivering or sweating;
point than wakefulness;
temperature drifts toward that of the local
shivering initiated at lower environment
temperature than during
wakefulness
occurs infrequently
increases from NREM (in both males and
females)
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Explain why sleep patterns and duration vary from person to person.
People differ in their individual sleep requirements.

For example, newborns sleep twice as much as adults.

These age-related changes are rivaled by differences in the normal amount of sleep
among individuals of any age.

Twin studies suggest that these differences may be partially genetic. Sleep patterns are
also culturally influenced.

People in modern industrialized nations get less sleep because of shift work and social
diversions, for example.
Discuss several risks associated with sleep deprivation.
Sleep Deprivation
1. Fatigue and subsequent death.
2. Impaired concentration.
3. Emotional irritability.
4. Depressed immune system.
5. Greater vulnerability.
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Why do we sleep? Sleep Theories
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Sleep Theories
1. Sleep Protects: Sleeping in the darkness when
predators loomed about kept our ancestors out
of harm’s way.
2. Sleep Recuperates: Sleep helps restore and
repair brain tissue.
3. Sleep Helps Remembering: Sleep restores and
rebuilds our fading memories.
4. Sleep and Growth: During sleep, the pituitary
gland releases growth hormone. Older people
release less of this hormone and sleep less.
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Age
Average amount of sleep per day
Newborn
up to 18 hours
1–12 months
14–18 hours
1–3 years
12–15 hours
3–5 years
11–13 hours
5–12 years
9–11 hours
Adolescents
9-10
Adults, including elderly 7–8 (+) hours
Pregnant women
8 (+) hours
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Sleep Disorders
Sleep Disorders: Insomnia
1. Somnambulism: Sleepwalking.
2. Nightmares: Frightening dreams that wake
a sleeper from REM.
3. Night terrors: Sudden arousal from sleep
with intense fear accompanied by
physiological reactions (e.g., rapid heart
rate, perspiration) that occur during SWS.
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Sleep Disorders: Insomnia
4. Narcolepsy: Overpowering urge to fall
asleep that may occur while talking or
standing up.
5. Sleep apnea: Failure to breathe when
asleep.
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4) Night Terrors - abrupt awakenings from NREM sleep accompanied by intense autonomic
arousal and feelings of panic.
a) usually occurs during SWS
b) this is most common in children ages 3-8, although it sometimes occurs in adults
c) typically during a night terror, the child will sit upright, scream a lot (sounds like the child is
being murdered), but then just stops and goes back to sleep.
d) Usually the child has no recollection of the event
e) not indicative of emotional disorders
5) Somnambulism (sleep walking)
a) despite what your mother may have told you, a sleep walker is Not acting out a
dream
b) typically, sleep walking occurs during SWS
c) etiology is unknown - may be affected by stress
d) often accident prone
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Why do we dream?
1. Wish Fulfillment: Sigmund Freud suggested
that dreams provide a psychic safety valve to
discharge unacceptable feelings. The dream’s
manifest (apparent) content may also have
symbolic meanings (latent content) that signify
our unacceptable feelings.
2. Information Processing: Dreams may help sift,
sort, and fix a day’s experiences in our
memories.
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First of all – we ALL dream – if you think you don’t---you just
wake up and “go” tp fast to recall your dreams…believe
me….we all dream….
What do we Dream?
1. Negative Emotional Content: 8 out of 10
dreams have negative emotional content.
2. Failure Dreams: People commonly dream
about failure, being attacked, pursued,
rejected, or struck with misfortune.
3. Sexual Dreams: Contrary to our thinking,
sexual dreams are sparse. Sexual dreams in
men are 1 in 10; and in women 1 in 30.
4. Dreams of Gender: Women dream of men
and women equally; men dream more about
men than women.
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Dream Theories:
Freud believed that a dream’s manifest content is a censored version of its latent
content, which gratifies our unconscious wishes.
Freud – Wish Fulfillment
Freud - believed dreams were a way to achieve wish fulfillment (what you lack in your life
you get in your dreams).
Freud believed that to understand dreams, you need to understand both Manifest and Latent
content, as well as:
Manifest Content: According to Freud, the remembered storyline of a dream.
Latent Content: According to Freud, the underlying "meaning" of a dream.
For example, you have a dream you are riding on a "train" that is traveling "out of control"
and suddenly goes "through a tunnel"...do I need to go on with this example?
Why do we dream?
4. Activation-Synthesis Theory: Suggests that the
brain engages in a lot of random neural
activity. Dreams make sense of this activity.
5. Cognitive Development: Some researchers
argue that we dream as a part of brain
maturation and cognitive development.
All dream researchers believe we need REM sleep. When
deprived of REM sleep and then allowed to sleep,
we show increased REM sleep called REM Rebound.
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Despite their differences, most theorists agree that REM sleep and its associated dreams
serve an important function, as shown by the REM rebound that occurs following REM
deprivation.
Why do we dream?
1. Wish Fulfillment: Sigmund Freud suggested
that dreams provide a psychic safety valve to
discharge unacceptable feelings. The dream’s
manifest (apparent) content may also have
symbolic meanings (latent content) that signify
our unacceptable feelings.
2. Information Processing: Dreams may help sift,
sort, and fix a day’s experiences in our
memories.
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Rosalind Cartwright (Cognitive Problem Solving View) - dreams are a way to work out every
day problems. We have no social, moral, or ethical constraints during sleep that we have
during wake, so we can take care of business in ways we can't when awake.
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Why do we dream?
4. Activation-Synthesis Theory: Suggests that the
brain engages in a lot of random neural
activity. Dreams make sense of this activity.
5. Cognitive Development: Some researchers
argue that we dream as a part of brain
maturation and cognitive development.
All dream researchers believe we need REM sleep. When
deprived of REM sleep and then allowed to sleep,
we show increased REM sleep called REM Rebound.
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1)
Activation Synthesis Model (Hobson & McCarley) - dreams are byproducts of bursts of
neural activity in the sub-ortical area of the brain. Brain is getting neural impulses that are
not important or useful so it simply tries to make sense of them.
Dream Theories
Summary
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HYPNOSIS
Hypnosis: A social interaction in which one person (the hypnotist) suggests to another person
(the subject) that certain perceptions, feelings, thoughts, or behaviors will spontaneously
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occur.
Posthypnotic Amnesia: Supposed inability to recall what one experienced during hypnosis;
induced by the hypnotist's suggestion.
Posthypnotic Suggestion: A suggestion, made during hypnosis, to be carried out after the
subject is no longer hypnotized; used by some clinicians to control undesired symptoms and
behaviors (e.g., eat less, quit smoking, feel less anxiety, etc.).
 Hypnosis does not improve memory.
 In fact, it is likely to contaminate our memories.
 It is, however, useful in relieving PAIN.
 Possibly due to dissociation or a "split in consciousness".
While part of the person is still aware of the pain, the conscious part of the
person is not.
Is Hypnosis an Altered State of
Consciousness?
Courtesy of News and Publications Service, Stanford University
1. Social Influence Theory:
Hypnotic subjects may
simply be imaginative
actors playing a social
role.
2. Divided Consciousness
Theory: Hypnosis is a
special state of
dissociated (divided)
consciousness (Hilgard,
1986, 1992).
(Hilgard, 1992)
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