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Chapter 8
Learning
© 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E
Learning: Chapter 8
Lecture Overview
• Learning
• Conditioning
– Classical conditioning
– Operant conditioning
• Cognitive Social Learning
• Neuroscience and Evolution
© 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E
Learning
• Learning refers to a relatively
permanent change in behavior resulting
from practice or experience
– Learning can be unlearned
– Observation can lead to learning
– Learning requires an operational memory
system
© 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E
Classical Conditioning
• Certain stimuli can elicit a reflexive
response
– Air puff produces an eye-blink
– Smelling a grilled steak can produce
salivation
• The reflexive stimulus (UCS) and
response (UCR) are unconditioned
© 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E
Classical Conditioning
• In classical conditioning, the CS is repeatedly
paired with the reflexive stimulus (UCS)
– Conditioning is best when the CS precedes the UCS
– The neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus
(CS) after it is repeatedly paired with the UCS
• Eventually the CS will produce a response (CR)
similar to that produced by the UCS
© 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E
Pavlov’s Experiment
© 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E
Analysis of Pavlov’s Study
© 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E
Conditioning of Emotional
Responses
• John Watson documented that
conditioning of emotional responses in
the Little Albert study
– CS: a white rat
– UCS: a loud banging sound
– UCR: fear/startle response
– Eventually Albert exhibited fear of the white
rat
© 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E
Conditioned Emotional
Responses
• Conditioned Emotional Response: a
classically conditioned emotional response
to a previously neutral stimulus
© 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E
Examples of Classical
Conditioning
• Other instances of learning
– conditioning of attraction in advertising
• Brand name (CS) + attractive model (UCS) =>
liking (UCR)
– aversion
• Flavor (CS) + illness (UCS) => flavor aversion
(UCR)
© 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E
Generalization and
Discrimination
• Stimulus Generalization: Learned response not
only to the original stimulus but also to other
similar stimuli
– Little Albert feared stimuli resembling rat
• Stimulus Discrimination: Learned response to a
specific stimulus but not to other, similar stimuli
– Pavlov’s dogs learned to discriminate between tones
© 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E
Extinction
• Pairings of the CS and UCS lead to
conditioning whereas presentation of the CS
only leads to loss of the conditioned response
• Extinction refers to loss of response to a CS
presented without the UCS
– Extinction is not forgetting
• Extinction is useful in clinical situations
– Extinction of a phobia can be treated by exposure
to the CS only
© 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E
Extinction
© 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E
Spontaneous Recovery
• Spontaneous recovery: Reappearance of
a conditioned response after extinction
© 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E
Higher-Order Conditioning
• Higher-Order Conditioning: A neutral
stimulus (NS) becomes a conditioned
stimulus (CS) through repeated pairings
with a previously conditioned stimulus
(CS).
– Children learn to pair McDonald’s restaurant
with food, and later learn that the two golden
arches are a symbol for McDonald’s
© 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E
Higher-Order Conditioning
© 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E
Classical Conditioning in
Everyday Life
•
•
•
•
Prejudice
Phobias
Medical Treatments
Advertising
© 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E
Classical Conditioning and Prejudice
© 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E
Operant Conditioning
• Organisms make responses that have
consequences
– The consequences serve to increase or
decrease the likelihood of making that
response again
– The response can be associated with cues
in the environment
• We put coins in a machine to obtain food
• But we refrain when an Out of Order sign is
placed on the machine
© 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E
Key Aspects of Operant
Conditioning
• In operant conditioning, the stimulus is a
cue, it does not elicit the response
• Operant responses are voluntary
• In operant conditioning, the response
elicits a reinforcing stimulus, whereas in
classical conditioning, the UCS elicits
the reflexive response
© 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E
Key Terms of Operant
Conditioning
• Reinforcement is any procedure that
increases the response
• Punishment is any procedure that
decreases the response
• Types of reinforcers:
– Primary: satisfy a biological need
– Secondary: have learned value
© 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E
Reinforcement/Punishment
© 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E
Schedules of Reinforcement
• Continuous: reinforcement occurs after
every response
– Produces rapid acquisition and is subject
to rapid extinction
• Partial: reinforcement occurs after
some, but not all, responses
– Responding on a partial reinforcement
schedule is more resistant to extinction
© 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E
Partial Reinforcement
Schedules
• Ratio: schedules based on responses
– Fixed: every nth response is reinforced
– Variable: ratio varies unpredictably
• Interval: schedules based on time
– Fixed: interval is x in length (e.g. 1 min)
– Variable: interval varies unpredictably
© 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E
Reinforcement Schedules
© 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E
Shaping
• Shaping: Reinforcement is delivered for
successive approximations of the desired
response
© 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E
Side Effects of Punishment
•
•
•
•
•
•
Increased aggression
Passive aggressiveness
Avoidance behavior
Modeling
Temporary suppression
Learned helplessness
© 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E
Summary of Conditioning
© 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E
Applying Operant Conditioning
• Provide immediate and clear feedback
• Reinforcers and punishers should be
presented as close in time to the response
as possible
• Reinforcement and punishment must be
consistent
• Feedback must follow subject’s behavior,
not precede it
© 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E
Biofeedback
• Feedback allows for control of responses
– Most operant responses are voluntary motor
system responses
– The autonomic nervous system (ANS) does
not provide sufficient sensory feedback to
the brain to allow for conscious control
• Biofeedback uses electronic devices to
provide feedback and control of ANS
function (e.g. skin temperature)
© 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E
Biofeedback
© 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E
Cognitive-Social Theory
• Cognitive-social theory: uses learning
principles in combination with an emphasis
on thought processes
• Observational learning refers to the notion
that humans can learn through observation of
models
– Requires attention to the model
– Involves cognitive abilities to organize and
remember the modeled behavior
– Requires practice of the modeled behavior
– Person must decide to use the modeled behavior
© 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E
Cognitive-Social Learning
• Insight: Sudden understanding of a problem that implies
the solution
– Kohler’s chimpanzees
• Cognitive Map: A mental image of a three-dimensional
space that a person or animal has navigated
• Latent Learning: Hidden learning that exists without
behavioral signs
– Tolman’s rats
• Scaffolding: A more experienced person adjusts the
amount of guidance to fit the student’s current
performance level; combines shaping and modeling
© 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E
Neuroscience of Learning
• Learning involves changes in the brain
– Biochemical changes noted during learning
include changes in the ability of neurons to
release transmitters across the synaptic cleft
– Anatomical changes during learning include
circuits within particular brain regions:
• E.g. the cerebellum plays a role in certain forms of
classical conditioning (involving an eye blinking)
© 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E
Instincts
• Innate behaviors are inborn, emerge
during certain periods, and are not the
result of learning
© 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E
Evolution and Learning
• Biological Preparedness: Built-in
readiness to form associations between
certain stimuli and responses
• Instinctive Drift: Conditioned responses
shift (or drift) toward innate response
patterns
© 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E