Download Developmental Psychology

Developmental Psychology
General overview of Theories of
Developmental Psychology
Domains of Development

1. Physical development -changes in body size,
proportions, appearance, brain development,
perceptual and motor capacities, & physical
health.

2. Cognitive development –thought processes,
intellectual abilities (attention, memory, problem
solving, imagination, creativity), & capacity to
represent the world through language.

3. Emotional and Social development –
emotional expression, feelings, interpersonal
skills, self-understanding, & emotional regulation.
Periods of Development

1. The Prenatal Period (conception-to-birth) Rapid
change occurs during which a one-celled organism is
transformed into a human baby.

2. Infancy and toddler hood (birth to 2 years) Rapid
changes in physiology, perceptual & motor capacities,
language acquisition, and emotional development.

3. Early childhood (2 to 6 yrs). Child’s body grows,
motor skills become more complex and refined, behavior
is more self-controlled and sufficient. Child engages in
imaginative play, obtains greater autonomy, develops
fluent language and learns morals.
Periods of Development contd.

1. Middle childhood (6 to 11 yrs). Children master
reading, grammar, mathematics,and other academics.
They become more independent, responsible, their
thought processes become more logical, athletic ability
improves, and sense of self becomes more advanced.

2. Adolescence (11 to 20 yrs). Thought processes
becomes more abstract, sexual maturity is reached,
interest in preparation for college or work becomes
salient. Emotion regulation changing.
Themes of Development

A. Biological versus Environmental Influence


Do humans develop based on biological factors
(genetic factors, chemicals in brain) or
environmental experiences (parental rearing,
social factors)?

Current view - both factors influence human
development.

How do both biological and environmental factors
interact to produce developmental variations in
different children?
Themes of Development

B. Active Versus Passive Child
Are children passive recipients of environmental
stimuli or active explorers in their surroundings?
Children are active in shaping, controlling, and
directing the course of their own development.

Parents and teachers do not simply mold children.
Rather, children and adults have interactions that
influence each other (systems theory).
Themes of Development

C. Continuity Versus Discontinuity

Is development a continuous process or does it occur in
discrete stages?

Current view- is a middle-of-the-road position.

Development is essentially continuous, but interspersed
with periods of transition in which change may be
sudden.
Transitions - biological (crawling, walking),
psychological (the development of emotions- smiling,
temper tantrums, etc.) & social (peer relationships.)
Themes of Development

D. Situational Influences versus Individual
Characteristics

How much does the context of the situation influence
what we learn about children?

Do children respond similarly in different situations
(with friends, around their parents, relatives, strangers,
etc.)?

Most researchers look at role of personality and
situational factors.
Themes of Development

E. Risk and Resilience

How do we respond to the risks we encounter as we
develop?
Risks-- divorce, death of loved one, accidents,
disease, poverty, etc.
Children differ with regard to how they cope with
these risks. Some are severely impaired, others are
quite resilient.
Factors influencing Resilience

3 factors buffer children from effects of risk & stress.

1. Positive Individual Attributes – Children with easy
dispositions, high self-esteem, and intelligence adapt
more easily to stressors. Girls have the edge here.

2. Supportive Family Environment – presence of one
caring supportive parent buffers adverse effects of
poverty, divorce, & child abuse. (Good news for single
parents!!!)

3. Positive influence of agencies outside home (church,
school, peers), improves resiliency.
Theories of Development

The Psychodynamic View (Freud – 1856-1939)

Popular- 1930s & 1940s.

Children move through a series of stages in which
they must resolve unconscious conflicts between
biological drives and societal expectations.

The unsuccessful completion of one of these
stages led to development of dysfunctional or
abnormal behavior.
Structures of Mind
1. Id- present from birth this structure is unconscious and
seeks to gratify our most basic urges: hunger, thirst,
elimination of waste, and sex.
(“I want” of our personality).
2. Ego- is primarily conscious, and tries to satisfy the
demands of the id, without compromising the norms of
society. The ego works according to the reality
principle.
3. Super-ego: the last structure to develop, it is our moral
center, it tells us what is right and wrong.
Psychosexual Stages of Development

1. Oral (0-1 year) –infants gains satisfaction from oral
stimulation (sucking, licking).

2. Anal (second year of life)- Child’s main source of libidinous
pleasure comes from passing and retaining feces.

3. Phallic (3 to 5)- child’s main source of gratification results
from stimulation of the genitals.
** Child must overcome Oedipal and Electra complexes.


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4. Latency (6-12) - during this stage sexual impulses are
dormant.

5. Genital (young adulthood)- During this stage the child
develops heterosexual interests.
Cons of Freud’s Theory





1. Freud had no scientific data to support his
theories.
2. Freud’s theories (unconscious, libido, etc.)
cannot be observed.
3. Theory explains behavior (post-hoc) after the
fact.
4. Observations not representative of population.
5. Theory based on upper class female patients.
The patients were wealthy Viennese women.
Pros of Freud’s Work

1. Focused on the influence of unconscious
processes.
Currently, we know that implicit memories and
cognitions influencing behavior (Mere-exposure
effect).
 2. Stressed that events in childhood do influence
our adult behavior.
 3. Defense mechanisms

Learning Theory/Behaviorism

Learning is a relatively permanent change
brought about by knowledge and/or experience.
Popular- 1940s-1960
Human development is influenced by
environmental factors.
Behaviorism - focuses on observable behaviors,
rather than on consciousness.
Types of Learning

Classical condition: reflexive learning by association

Pavlov’s study:
Step 1: Meat Powder (UCS)---------Salivation (UCR)
 Step 2: Bell (CS) -------
---Meat Powder (UCS)--Salivation (UCR)
(pair bell with meat)


Step 3:
Bell (CS)--------------------Salivation (CR)
Watson & Rayner (1920)

Conditioned emotional responses in an 11month-old infant (“Little Albert”).

Used classical conditioning to get infant to fear
white furry objects (rats, santa’s beard, fur coat,
etc.).

They did this by presenting a loud obnoxious
noise (CS) whenever “Albert” showed an interest
in the white furry rat. Soon, child came to fear
white furry objects without presence of noise.
Operant conditioning (B.F. Skinner)

Operant conditioning – behavior may be learned
or extinguished through use of reinforcers
(rewards) or punishments.
Positive Reinforcement
 E.g., a good grade received after studying for an
exam
Negative Reinforcement
 E.g., smoking behavior increases to reduce the
aversive sensations associated with a nicotine fit.
Social Learning Theory
Modeling (Albert Bandura)
We learn the consequences of given actions by
observing what happens to others.
Observing whether others are reinforced or
punished for given behaviors may influence the
probability that we will produce such behaviors.
 Added benefit: We don’t have to be punished to
learn “what-not-to-do.”
Cognitive Developmental Theory

Piaget’s theory (1960s)

Children actively construct knowledge as they
manipulate and explore their world, & their
cognitive development takes place in stages.

Argued that children adapt to their surroundings.

Children don’t come out with blank slate, but with
methods for acquiring knowledge.
Processes of Change

According to Piaget 2 complementary cognitive
processes play a major role in promoting change
and increase children’s cognitive understanding of
their world.

Assimilation is the process by which children
absorb new information in with their current
framework (schema).

Accomodation is the process by which children
modify existing knowledge structures based on
incorporating new information.
Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development

Sensorimotor (birth to 2 yrs)- infants acquire
knowledge by “acting” on their environment, using their
senses and movements to explore the world.

Preoperational (2-7 yrs)- preschool-age children
acquire advanced language skills and start to think using
symbols.

Concrete operational (7-11 yrs)- Children’s reasoning
becomes logical. They learn to logically organize
concepts. They learn conservation of liquids and solids.

Formal operational (11+ yrs)-Abstract thinking comes
on-line, problem solving ability improves.
Cons of Piaget’s theory

1. Piaget underestimated the competencies of infants
and preschoolers.
(E.g., when young children are given tasks scaled
down in difficulty, their understanding appears closer to
that of older children and the adult)

2.Children’s performance on Piagetian tasks can be
improved with training.
Suggests there is a problem with the assumption that
discovery learning rather than adult teaching is the best
way to foster development.