Download Fundamentals of Management 5e.

PART IV: Leading
8
Chapter 8
Foundations of Individual and
Group Behavior
Copyright © 2005 Prentice Hall, Inc.
All rights reserved.
PowerPoint Presentation by Charlie Cook
The University of West Alabama
Organizational Behavior (OB) Defined
• The study of the actions of people at work
• The focus of OB
 Individual behaviors
 Personality,
perception, learning, and motivation
 Group behaviors
 Norms,
roles, team-and conflict
• The goals of OB
 To explain
 To predict behavior
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8–2
Behaviors of Interest to OB
• Employee productivity
 The efficiency and effectiveness of employees
• Absenteeism
 The election by employees to attend work
• Turnover
 The exit of an employee from an organization
• Organizational citizenship
 Employee behaviors that promote the welfare of the
organization
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8–3
Understanding Employees
• Attitudes
 Valuative statements concerning objects, people, or
events
 Cognitive
component
– The beliefs, opinions, knowledge, and information held by
a person
 Affective
component
– The emotional, or feeling, segment of an attitude
 Behavioral
component
– An intention to behave in a certain way toward someone or
something
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8–4
Job-Related Attitudes
• Job satisfaction
 An employee’s general attitude toward his or her job.
• Job involvement
 The degree to which an employee identifies with his
or her job, actively participates in it, and considers his
or her job performance important for self-worth.
• Organizational commitment
 An employee’s orientation toward the organization in
terms of his or her loyalty to, identification with, and
involvement in the organization.
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8–5
Cognitive Dissonance Theory
• Cognitive dissonance
 Any incompatibility between two or more attitudes or
between behavior and attitudes
 Inconsistency
is uncomfortable and individuals will seek
a stable state with a minimum of dissonance.
 The
desire to reduce dissonance is determined by:
– The importance of the elements creating the dissonance
– The degree of influence the individual believes he or she
has over the elements
– The rewards that may be involved.
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8–6
Fostering Positive Job Attitudes
• Managers can reduce dissonance by:
 Creating the perception that the source of the
dissonance is externally imposed and uncontrollable.
 Increasing employee rewards for engaging in the
behaviors related to the dissonance.
• Satisfied workers are not necessarily more
productive workers.
 Assisting employees in successful performance of
their jobs will increase their desired outcomes and
lead to increased job satisfaction—focusing on
productivity as a means rather than an ends.
Copyright © 2005 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.
8–7
Personality and Behavior
• Personality is the combination of the
psychological traits that characterize that
person.
• Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)
 A method of identifying personality types uses four
dimensions of personality to identify 16 different
personality types.
• Big Five model
 Five-factor model of personality that includes
extroversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness,
emotional stability, and openness to experience.
Copyright © 2005 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.
8–8
Big Five Model of Personality Factors
• Extroversion
• Agreeableness
• Conscientiousness
• Emotional stability
• Openness to experience
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8–9
Emotional intelligence (EI)
• An assortment of noncognitive skills,
capabilities, and competencies that influence a
person’s ability to cope with environmental
demands and pressures.
 Dimensions of EI
 Self-awareness
own feelings
 Self-management
 Self-motivation
 Empathy
 Social
of own emotions
in face of setbacks
for others’ feelings
skills to handle others’ emotions
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8–10
Personality Traits And Work-related
Behaviors
• Locus of control
 A personality attribute that measures the degree to
which people believe that they are masters of their
own fate.
• Machiavellianism (“Mach”)
 A measure of the degree to which people are
pragmatic, maintain emotional distance, and believe
that ends can justify means.
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8–11
Personality Traits And Work-related
Behaviors (cont’d)
• Self-esteem (SE)
 An individual’s degree of life dislike for him- or herself
• Self-monitoring
 A measure of an individual’s ability to adjust his or
her behavior to external, situational factors
• Propensity for risk taking
 The willingness to take chances—a preference to
assume or avoid risk
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8–12
Key Points of Holland’s Model
• There do appear to be intrinsic differences in
personality among individuals.
• There are different types of jobs.
• People in job environments congruent with their
personality types should be more satisfied and
less likely to resign voluntarily than people in
incongruent jobs.
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8–13
Personality Characteristics of
Entrepreneurs
• Proactive personality
 High level of motivation
 Internal
locus of control
 Need for autonomy
 Abundance of self-confidence
 Self-esteem
 High energy levels
 Persistence
 Moderate risk taker
 Problem
solver
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8–14
Perception
• Perception
 A process by which individuals organize and interpret
their sensory impressions in order to give meaning to
their environment.
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8–15
Influences on Perception
• Personal
characteristics
 Attitudes
 Personality
 Motives
 Interests
 Past experiences
 Expectations
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• Target
characteristics
 Relationship of a target
to its background
 Closeness and/or
similarity to other
things
 The context in objects
is seen
 Other situational
factors.
8–16
How Managers Judge Employees
• Attribution theory
 A theory based on the premise that we judge people
differently depending on the meaning we attribute to
a given behavior
 Internally
caused behavior is believed to be under the
control of the individual.
 Externally caused behavior results from outside causes;
that is, the person is seen as having been forced into
the behavior by the situation.
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8–17
Interpreting Behavior
• Distinctiveness
 Whether an individual displays a behavior in many
situations or whether it is particular to one situation.
• Consensus
 If the individual responds in the same way as
everyone else faced with a similar situation responds.
• Consistency
 The individual engages in the same behaviors
regularly and consistently over time.
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8–18
Judgment Errors
• Fundamental attribution error
 The tendency to underestimate the influence of
external factors and overestimate the influence of
internal or personal factors when making judgments
about the behavior of others.
• Self-serving bias
 The tendency for individuals to attribute their own
successes to internal factors while putting the blame
for failures on external factors.
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8–19
Learning
• Learning defined
 Any relatively permanent change in behavior that
occurs as a result of experience.
• Operant conditioning (B. F. Skinner)
 A behavioral theory that argues that voluntary, or
learned, behavior is a function of its consequences.
 Reinforcement increases the likelihood that behavior
will be repeated; behavior that is not rewarded or is
punished is less likely to be repeated.
 Rewards are most effective if they immediately follow
the desired response.
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8–20
Learning (cont’d)
• Social learning theory
 The theory that people can learn through observation
and direct experience; by modeling the behavior of
others.
• Modeling processes
 Attentional processes.
 Retention processes
 Motor reproduction processes
 Reinforcement processes
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8–21
Shaping Behavior
• Shaping behavior
 Systematically reinforcing each successive step that
moves an individual closer to a desired behavior
• Four ways in which to shape behavior:
 Positive reinforcement
 Negative reinforcement
 Punishment
 Extinction.
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8–22
Foundations Of Group Behavior
• Group
 Two or more interacting and interdependent
individuals who come together to achieve particular
objectives
• Role
 A set of expected behavior patterns attributed to
someone in a given position in a social unit
• Norms
 Acceptable standards (e.g., effort and performance,
dress, and loyalty) shared and enforced by the
members of a group
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8–23
Foundations Of Group Behavior (cont’d)
• Status
 A prestige grading, position, or rank within a group
 May
be informally conferred by characteristics such as
education, age, skill, or experience.
 Anything can have status value if others in the group
admire it.
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8–24
Group Effects
• Social loafing
 The tendency of an individual in a group to decrease
his or her effort because responsibility and individual
achievement cannot be measured
• Group cohesiveness
 The degree to which members of a group are
attracted to each other and share goals
 Size,
work environment, length of time in existence,
group-organization, and goal congruency affect the
degree of group cohesiveness.
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8–25