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th
19
C
Revolution/Reaction/Revolution
Congress of Vienna (1814)

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
To decide what to do with the chaos of Europe
after the Napoleonic Wars
Pretty much four who met only informally to hash
out settlement: Austria (Metternich), Prussia
(Bismarck), Russia (Alexander I) and Britain +
France (Talleyrand) trying to influence from the
wings
VERY conservative: aim, to restore ancien
regime and repudiate aims of liberals and
French Revolution; spokesman of these ideals:
Metternich

Europe
after the
Congress
of Vienna
Methods: back to “good old days”

Wanted “balance of power” between great powers to
prevent another empire from swallowing Europe
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Lombardy (Napoleon seized) back to Austria +Venice
Belgium + Netherlands = kingdom of Holland as buffer vs France
Confederacy of Germany (39 states under Austria)
Prussia: territory along Rhine and half of Poland as buffer vs
France
Britain got Capetown in So. Africa, Malta, kept Gibraltar
Restoration of old monarchies, as much as possible
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Influence of Talleyrand: Bourbon Louis XVIII for France
Alexander I of Russia becomes King of Poland (remainder)
Strengthening of position of Austrian Habsburg monarchy
Concert System

Quadruple Alliance formed for periodic meetings of
participants in Congress
 1818:

added France, changed name to “Concert system”
Aim: to provide united front vs possible threat to
conservative regimes:
 Intervention Italy 1821 to put down revolution
 Spain 1823 vs agitation for liberal change
 BUT
fought for liberation in Greek Revolution (1821-30) vs
Ottoman (Turks) Empire

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It worked: no major European wars first ½ of Century
BUT vs trend of thinking
 Growth of liberalism and demand for reform
 Ideas of Enlightenment and Romanticism promoted
individual liberty and passion for scientific research and
progress
 Constitutionalism and right to vote for common people
Age of -isms
Many of the ideas and ideologies that
shape our world originated or were
modified in the 19th Century
Most of these –isms deal with economics;
however, many also describe or impact
the social systems of class and
hierarchy and imply political action.
Other –isms deal with politics and imply
economic action. All are interrelated.
Political Concepts revived or new
to the 19th C

Liberalism (see following slides): wanted to end inherited political
and economic privileges and establish constitutional government
based on legal equality and representation

Democracy: More radical than liberalism. Supported not only legal
equality but also active political participation by the common man

Socialism: Even more radical. Property and wealth should be
redistributed according to individual needs

Nationalism: States should be based not on dynastic principles, but
on ethnic, linguistic, and historical bonds. Shared language,
ethnicity, and history is highest principle of political organization
Class Consciousness
Owners – capitalists
 Non-landed middle class
and white collar workers
– bourgeoisie
 Factory and
trade
workers—
proletariat

Conservatism


Reactionaries (Put it
back the way it was)
Revolution of 1848
 Successful
revolutions in all
European countries
 Monarchies returned
after 6 months in all
countries

Tories/conservatives
Liberalism



Favored changing government
to improve social conditions
Whigs
Edmund Burke
 Opposite view of Nationalism: not natural rights of
man, but traditional rights inherited as part of national
legacy; no right to revolt if such “rights” not protected
 Supported
American Revolution, but decried the
French Revolution—(split Whigs over French
Revolution): believed in limited monarchy
 Law of unintended consequences

Example: Prussia forced to take over the Ruhr Valley
which, unknowingly, has the coal reserves to allow
Prussia to conquer the rest of Germany
Promoters of Liberal Ideals

Poets/novelists

Romantic idealism

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Natural life superior
(noble savage)
Aimed at complacent
middle class

Charles Dickens
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Honorè de Balzac
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
Stupid middle class
Jane Austen

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Social conditions
Against classes
The Bronte sisters

Against male domination
Waves of Revolutions
1821 beginning in France (again)
 1830
 1848-50

Spain Loses her Empire

Revolution of 1820

During Napoleonic Wars:


Throne from Charles III to Ferdinand (son) to Charles (Napoleon) who abdicated for Napoleon’s
brother Joseph
Liberal nationalists with British support resisted French; set up Cortes of Cadiz (legislature): wrote
Constitution of 1812
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Limited monarchy with power in single chamber Cortes
Curb nobility and Catholic Church; abolish Spanish Inquisition
Protected individual rights
Voting to property owners; business powers gained voice
Only in force temporarily: rest of 19th C and much of 20th rebellions to put it in force
Ferdinand VII
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Restored to power at Congress of Vienna
Promised to abide by constitution, but once in power, dissolved Cortes: absolutist rule

After several unsuccessful rebellions, 1820 successful revolution forced constitution of
1812 on king
 Congress of Vienna powers met in Verona, ok’d French to invade to restore Ferdinand to
absolute power
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
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1823 revoked constitution: ruthless repression of revolutionaries
When Ferdinand died, liberals supported his daughter as Isabella II and conservative forces
supported his brother, Charles = Carlist Wars
All of these wars and rebellions from Napoleonic times forward resulted in weak colonial
government from Spain—colonies began declaring and fighting for independence, ending only at
turn of 20th Century with Spanish American War
Mexican Wars for Independence

Conditions in Latin America encouraging
rebellion:
 Social
stratification: peninsulares favored
over criollos (Indios, mestizos, negros totally
ignored and exploited by both groups)
 Political exploitation: best offices to
peninsulares; NOT based on talent and
competence
Simon Bolivar
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

one of South America's greatest generals
victories over the Spaniards won independence for Bolivia,
Panama, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Venezuela:
called El Liberator (The Liberator) and the "George Washington
of South America."
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Educated and grew up in Europe during Napoleonic times
Married, wife died of yellow fever, vowed never to remarry
Voice for independence in Europe:
Joined the group of patriots that seized Caracas in 1810 and proclaimed
independence from Spain.
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went to Great Britain for aid,: only a promise of British neutrality.
Wrote Cartagena Manifesto in which he argued that New Granada (Now
Columbia, Ecuador, Panama) should help liberate Venezuela because their
cause was the same and Venezuela's freedom would secure that of New
Granada.
took command of a Colombian force and captured Bogota in 1814, but
lacked men and supplies, and new defeats led Bolivar to flee to Jamaica. In
Haiti gathered a force, landed in Venezuela in 1816, took Angostra (now
Ciudad Bolivar), became dictator there.
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marched into New Granada, 1819, defeated
the Spaniards in Boyar in 1819, liberating the
territory of Colombia. He then returned to
Angostura and led the congress that
organized the original republic of Colombia
(now Ecuador, Colombia, Panama, and
Venezuela) and became its first president,
1819.
crushed the Spanish army at Carabobo in
Venezuela, 1821.
marched into Educador and added that
territory to the new Colombian republic.
After a meeting in 1822 with San Martin,
Bolivar fought for and became dictator of
Peru; victory over the Spaniards at Auacucho
in 1824 ended Spanish power in South
America.
Upper Peru became a separate state,
(Bolivia, after Bolivar) in 1825. The
constitution which he drew up for Bolivia is
one of his most important political
pronouncements.
France from Napoleon
to 3rd Republic
Louis XVIII


Son of brother of Louis XV; nephew of Louis
XVI restored to power by Congress of Vienna
Agreed to grant charter making him a monarch
on British pattern, even though really believed
in “divine right”


King executive; legislative him + 2 chambered
legislature: 1 appointed by him, 1 by restricted
suffrage
After Napoleon’s 100 days, Congress of
Vienna took harsh measures vs France


Lost Savoy,
occupation by foreign troops until paid war
reparations indemnity of 700 million in gold (130
million/yr); talks brought it down to 265 million,
but still more than whole annual budget
 Elected chamber = stubborn royalists, so Allies
forced out and elected new one which sped up
indemnity payments and got troops out
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Military: conscription by lot, promotion by ability, Not
controlled by nobility
BUT suppressed press; gave double vote to the rich
Spain 1821: insurrection forced king to swear by constitution;
coup attempt put power in hands of extreme left; king virtual
prisoner to revolutionaries
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Opposition power under Chateaubriand
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Alexander and Metternich voted to intervene to stop revolution
England neutral, but didn’t want France intervening
Fr Minister of Foreign Affairs, Montmorency, secretly sent arms to
Spanish royalists
Eventually Louis forced into war: sent 95,000 into Spain; easily
marched to Madrid and restored Ferdinand to throne—brought
prestige to Louis
Minister who was upset when not supported in power, so deserted
Louis
Louis—horrible death from gangrene, but no children
Ancien regime king who insisted on appointment of officials,
municipal leaders
Charles X


Another nephew of Louis XVI, brother to
Louis XVIII
Contrasting life to Louis


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Dissolute, unfaithful to wife; favorite mistress
sister to Marie Antoinette friend
She died in London, made him promise to
reform and find God, so influenced by
confessor, whom he made cardinal
Liberal at first (restored some press
freedom) but
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Granted indemnities to emigres deprived of
property 1792
Declared primogeniture (opposed by peers—
favored oldest sons)
Wave of anticlericalism, so suppressed press
again
Appointed royalist, absolutist deputies
Downfall:


National Guard demonstrations against him: Charles
disbanded the guard
Revolution of 1830: Address of 221 a petition from the
legislature that said the king had to have support of the
populace to put his policies into effect; he didn’t have it

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4 Ordinances King’s answer/retaliation

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King dissolved chamber for new elections, so his ministers resigned
202 of the 221 reelected: 270 liberals vs 150 royalists in legislature
Suppressed freedom of press
Dissolved new chamber illegally (hadn’t met yet)
Restricted vote even further
Set elections for September 1830
Uprising in Paris: 3 days of rioting and barricades; most of
deputies (legislators) and some of army sided with the people
Resigned and exiled to London
Louis Philippe: July monarchy

Liberal: father (descendant of
one of sons of Louis XIV) voted
for death of cousin Louis XVI
 Duke of Orleans; Career in army
 Supported Dumoriez in war vs
Austria during Revolution
 When Dumoriez deserted to
Austria, he escaped to
Switzerland
 Exiled: traveled until Charles X
restored him (not Louis—afraid of
his popularity)

Abdication of Charles X: Louis
Philippe more or less elected
king, constitutional monarch
 Because
of his liberal politics, he
was asked to be king



At first, liberal: more electorate, less strict press censorship, no
state religion, bourgeoise ministers,
BUT took National Guard command from LaFayette (though he
was the one who insisted Louis Philippe become king)
Success in foreign policy


More of revolutions of 1830: Begium revolted vs Holland, offered
monarchy to his son; Louis Philippe refused. Talleyrand negotiated
“perpetual neutrality” of Belgium, Louis’s dau married king Leopold of
Saxe Coberg (widower of dau of king of England)
Social unrest

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Increasing industrialization meant horrible working and living conditions
in cities for laborers
Peasant riots: sacked archbishop’s palace
Revolts in So France encouraged by Napoleon’s nephew, Louis
Napoleon
Rebellion by Blanqui (anarchist) took Hotel de Ville
Guizot’s Conservative Position


I am, for my part, a decided enemy of universal suffrage. I look
upon it as the ruin of democracy and liberty. If I needed proof I
would have it under my very eyes; I will not elucidate.
However, I should permit myself to say, with all the respect I
have for a great country and a great government, that the
inner danger, the social danger by which the United States
appears menaced is due especially to universal suffrage; it is
that which makes them run the risk of seeing their real
liberties, the liberties of everybody, compromised, as well as
the inner order of their society. . Guizot
Chief minister under Louis Philippe: intellectual, critic,
moderate
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Liberal until after Napoleon’s fall
Supported constitutional monarchy: opposed Louis XVIII policies
of absolutism and oppression
1821 moderate political party: riots made him look conservative
because wanted constitutional monarchy
1830 rewarded for support of monarchy with jobs in government;
worked way up to chief minister, but by then, politics had moved
to the left, making him look very conservative
Revolution of 1848: sided with king, so although he’d already
resigned, in real trouble—escaped to England, but didn’t stay long
Continued as literary figure, social critic

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Absolutist monarch to end unrest because tired of wrangling
Guizot dissolved constitution
More foreign relations

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Algeria conquered and pacified
Anglo French friendship: Entente Cordiale
Son of Louis Philippe m daughter of Spanish princess vs Brit wishes
So turned to Austria for support; people upset because still traditional
hatred
Revolution of 1848

Started with poor harvests of 1846-47: bread prices up, so violent
demonstrations
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liberal agitators supported by humanitarian landlords, ’progressive’
clergymen, among professional men and the urban population.
King made an authoritarian speech, plus parliament agitating vs Guizot: after
demonstrations, Guizot resigned
Put head of rebellion, Thiers, in as minister to pacify opposition, but
though tried reforms, too little, too late
Forced abdication of last real king of France
Europe
1848
After the Revolution of 1848:
2nd Republic


13 governments in 18 years
Caretaker government: Radicals dominated at first, then quickly lost
power (only one worker among governing)


Divisions in Revolutionary ranks:
constituent assembly (elected by universal male suffrage), comprised
moderate liberals
 People of Paris voted only 34 radical members.

Support for radical policies continued strong among the laboring and
poor.

On May 15, revolutionaries led by radicals François Raspail and Louis
Blanqui attempted forcibly to take control of the constituent assembly.
 demanded intensification of the revolution
 called on the people of France to launch an offensive revolutionary war
throughout Europe to liberate all peoples still under monarchy
 moderate liberals easily retook control of the constituent assembly from
the radical firebrands.
2nd Republic, continued

Process of government:
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April: Constituent Assembly elected by universal manhood suffrage:
moderates
Constitution set elections for single chamber of legislature +
president of republic
Louis Napoleon got enormous majority as President
Unrest continued
Louis and Assembly in conflict over policies

Assembly created jobs temporarily, then eliminated them=rioting
brutally suppressed
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Royalists saw chance to agitate for new king
Louis Napoleon denounced “helplessness” of conservative assembly
unpopular in the country
His term over 1852, SO
Seized power 2 Dec 1851: 1852 pronounced 2nd Empire

In plebescite (like uncle) overwhelming vote favoring Louis Napoleon
2nd Empire: Louis Napoleon
becomes Napoleon III
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Relied on army to seize power
Purged Assembly and
magistrates, university leaders,
administrators in the
government of all who didn’t
support him
1852 declared self emperor:
ambition as 2nd Napoleon
“The Empire means peace.”
Didn’t want expansion of uncle,
nor war
Social minded: wanted good,
but his way
Louis Napoleon: policies
and politics

Positive:
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Time of amazing economic expansion
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Railroads 2,000 mi in 1800: 12,000 mi in 1870
Machine tools, steam power dominate
Increase of public works, business and agriculture prosper (for rich)
Tried hard to better condition of workers and peasants: granted
right to strike, form unions
Tried later to liberalize regime, giving gradually more power to
assembly, making ministers accountable to assembly, not him
Negative
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More, stronger opposition from Catholics and industrialists who
didn’t like workers’ increasing strikes
Lost 1 million votes in election 1869
Foreign Affairs

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Crimean War: sided with Britain against Russia to
shore up Ottoman Turks; Congress of Paris ended
Supported Cavour vs Austria (rewarded with Nice and
Savoy)
Worldwide expansion into China, Indo China, Algeria
Mexico: put Habsburg Maximilian on “throne” of
Mexico; didn’t work—executed
Franco Prussian War

Bismarck manipulates the war:
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Over a six-month campaign, the German armies defeated the
French in a series of battles fought across northern France.
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Hohenzollern was candidate for Spanish throne
The French issued an ultimatum to Kaiser Wilhelm I of Prussia to
withdraw candidate: he did.
Further aiming to humiliate Prussia, Napoleon III then required Wilhelm
to renounce any possible further Hohenzollern candidature to the
Spanish throne. King Wilhelm refused.
Bismarck phrased the king's refusal in the famous Ems Telegram,
basically a propagandized account of the negotiations between France
and Prussia making Prussia and Wilhelm look patriotic, leaking the
document to the press.
Outraged, the French declared war on Prussia.
Napoleon III went to aid of beleaguered armies
After a decisive defeat, Napoleon III was captured at the Battle of Sedan,
Prussians to gates of Paris, shelling the city: 6 month siege
Treaty of Frankfurt (with 3rd Republic):

France lost Alsace / Lorraine, had to pay 5 billion franc war indemnity
3rd Republic and Commune: 1870


Taking advantage of the defeat, Thiers proclaims a conservative government
with the Assembly backing him, BUT
Working people demand fruits of revolution so long denied them

Specific demand of people: Paris should be self-governing, with own elected
Commune, (as most French towns),
 Government didn’t want, because demonstrations and violence of masses of
Paris
 .An associated but more vague wish was for a fairerway of managing the
economy, summed up in the popular cry for "La Sociale!"

During the siege of Paris by Prussian army

many tens of thousands of Parisians were armed members of a citizens' militia
known as the “National Guard", greatly expanded to help defend the city.
 Battalions in the poorer districts elected own officers and possessed many
cannons manufactured in Paris and paid for by public subscription.
 The city with National Guard had withstood the Prussian troops for six months.


To end siege, Thiers government allowed Prussian occupation of Paris:
people outraged, limited Prussians to tiny portion of city; Thiers worried
about possible uprising
National Guards, helped by ordinary working people, took cannons (which
they regarded as theirs) away from the Prussians' areas to "safe" districts.
The Commune (March-May 1871)
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Central Committee of the National Guard became increasingly radical and gained in
power,
Thiers’ government could not indefinitely allow it to have four hundred cannons.
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Thiers ordered regular troops to seize the cannons on Montemartre
The soldiers, morale low, mixed with National Guards and locals
General Lecomte ordered them to fire on an unarmed crowd they dragged him from his
horse. He was later shot, together with General Thomas, a hated former commander of the
Guard picked up by a mob.
 Other military units joined uprising

The government flees:

President Thiers ordered an immediate evacuation of Paris by as many of the regular
forces as would obey; by the police; and by administrators and specialists of every kind. He
fled to Versailles
 Thiers thought about this strategy ("retreat from Paris to crush the people afterward.”) since
1848

Organization of the Commune

Central Committee of the National Guard, only effective government in Paris, almost
immediately abdicated authority and arranged elections for a Commune
 The 92 members of the Commune ("Communal Council") included skilled workers, several
"professionals" (such as doctors and journalists), political activists, from reformist
republicans, t various socialists, to Jacobins
 Although the Paris Commune is considered a milestone in the organization of feminism,
with some (women actively participated to the events), they still did not acquire right to
vote, no female members of the Council.
What it did

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Only in power 60 days, so not much
Put Blanqui (anarchist) as head, but he was in prison during
whole time
Passed the following to help the people
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the remission of rents for the entire period of the siege (during which they
had been raised considerably by many landlords);
the abolition of night work in the hundreds of Paris bakeries;
the abolition of the guillotine
granting of pensions to unmarried companions of National Guards killed
on active service and children, if any;
the free return, by the state pawnshops, of all workmen's tools pledged
during the siege (concerned that skilled workers were forced to pawn r
tools during the war)
postponement of debt obligations, abolition of interest on the debts;
right of employees to take over and run an enterprise if deserted by its
owner.
Separated church and state: made all church property state property
and excluded religion from schools.

churches were only allowed to continue their religious activity if they kept
their doors open to public political meetings during the evenings.
Importance

The Paris Commune has been celebrated by anarchist
and Marxist socialists continuously until the present
day,
 high
degree of workers' control
 remarkable cooperation among different revolutionists.
 Engels identified Commune as “dictatorship of proletariat”
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absence of a standing army,
the self-policing of the "quartiers",
no longer a "state" in the old, repressive sense.
End of the Commune
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Constant attack from Versailles army
Commune forms “committee of public safety” = people afraid to take
authority
Though much verbal support from international radicals, no real help
Strength becomes weakness: army obeys central command; commune
meant independence of each area of city; had to defend selves
separately
Let into gates of richer area of city, army took one area at a time

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Many atrocities and killings by army
Commune took 50 hostages (many priests) and killed them
Once the army took the city, reprisals: Communards were shot against
Communards’ Wall in a cemetery, thousands of others marched to Versailles
for trials; few escaped
 30,000 dead, many more wounded, and perhaps as many as 50,000 later
executed or imprisoned; 7,000 were exiled to uninhabited islands
 Martial law for 5 years in Paris
3rd Republic
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
Tried to reestablish monarchy with gson of Charles X,
but he refused.
New constitution:
7
year President; could dissolve chamber
 Assemblies: lawmaking and budget
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Chamber of Deputies 4 years elected by universal manhood suffrage
Senate 1/3 elected every 3 years by limited suffrage
Council of State (President is president) determines constitutionality
of laws
Republicans divided
 Opportunists:
want gradual reform
 Radicals: want immediate reform

Succession of Presidents
 Many
only serve a few months
 Jules Ferry: serves several years and makes social reform
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Freedom of assembly for workers, unions’
Liberal freedom of the press
Reorganization of departments and cantons
Compulsory state primary education
Secondary education open to girls
Colonial Expansion
 Tunisia
(1881)
 French Western Africa (Sudan + Dahomey)
 Madagascar
 Congo—French Equatorial Africa
 Indochina
 (Panama, for awhile—scandal and failure)
Dreyfus Affair

Young Jewish officer accused of treason 1894


Incriminating letters to German attache in handwriting that looked like his
Catholic and royalists and other conservatives tried to make big issue of “Jewish plot” and
weakness of Republic to defend vs
 Though scant evidence, not allowed to see evidence vs him, judged guilty, sentenced to life
exile on Devil’s island

Another officer, Georges Picquart, questioned his guilt
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International eye on French army because of Zola’s J’Accuse

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Found evidence to prove guilty officer Walsin Esterhazy, BUT
Army couldn’t admit failure; more interested in image than justice
Transferred Picquart to Tunisia
Zola found guilty of libeling army, sentenced to prison
Fled to England, where continued to rally defenders
In answer, Catholics and Conservatives claimed conspiracy of Jews and Masons to
damage reputation of army, destroy France
Re court martial 1899: found guilty again, sentenced to 10 years detention

Another officer found additional documents forged to strengthen case vs Dreyfus
(identified forger, who committed suicide).
 President of France pardoned him; not exonerated, however, until 1906.

Consequences: opposite of what Catholics and conservatives intended
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Jaurez (President) support of anticlericalism: total separation of church and state
Closed monasteries and convents, seized property
Forbid church primary and secondary schools
Broke off diplomatic relations with Vatican
England: less volatile, more stable
in an era of change


Stable constitutional monarchy under Georges
and William
Victorian Era: long time queen
 “Sun never sets….”
 Middle class values
Empire
dominate
 Lower classes pay: rebellions that reflect the tenor of
times in Europe
 2 party system: Tories, then Whigs, then Tories

Gladstone vs Disraeli—liberal desire for reform vs
conservative push to keep status quo
 reforms
to benefit all
Why Reform was needed:

Political abuses
 “rotten boroughs”
 “pocket boroughs”
 Disenfranchisement of industrial cities
 Tiny, aristocratic electorate
 Established Church of privilege, not service

Social abuses
 Laissez
faire economics: middle class enriching
selves on the backs of the poor
 Ag and Industrial revolution: movement to cities




Horrible living conditions, no social safety net
Secularization of society: church not providing welfare, nor
state, either
Child labor, lack of education
No political rights
England: Reaction to French Revolution


Conservatism/ Reactionary: go back to “good old days”
 Combination Acts: outlaw workers organizations and unions
 Corn Laws 1815 to keep profits of landowners high (as
prices had been during Napoleonic wars): starvation for poor
 1816 abolished income tax (paid by rich) and substituted
excise tax (on consumer goods—paid by everybody)
 Many called for abolition of Poor Laws (public relief for
destitute)
 Liberals pushed for reform vs “rotten” boroughs, pocket
boroughs, restrictions on voting and holding office; curbs on
House of Lords
Selection of Duke of Wellington as very conservative PM
 He blocked 224 reform bills in commons
 So extreme lost own party support
Peterloo Massacre




Leading radicals in Manchester
(North industrialized, so for reform)
formed the Manchester Patriotic
Union to obtain parliamentary reform
They invited sympathetic speakers to
an outdoor meeting for all in St.
Peter’s Field, 16 Aug 1819
Local leaders worried that such a
gathering of reformers might end in a
riot.
They decided to arrange for a large
number of soldiers to be in
Manchester on the day of the
meeting.






four squadrons of cavalry of the 15th
Hussars (600 men),
several hundred infantrymen,
the Cheshire Yeomanry Cavalry (400
men),
a detachment of the Royal Horse
Artillery and two six-pounder guns and
the Manchester and Salford
Yeomanry (120 men)
all Manchester's special constables
(400 men).


At least 50,000 people gathered by midday.
The Boroughreeve and the special constables tried to clear a path through the
crowd.


At 1.30 p.m. the magistrates came to the conclusion that "the town was in great
danger".


The 400 special constables were ordered to form two continuous lines between where the
speeches were to take place, and Mr. Buxton's house where the magistrates were staying.
They decided to arrest Henry Hunt (speaker) and the other leaders of the demonstration
and asked for military help to do it.
Trouble:

As the officials moved closer to the speech area, members of the crowd began to link
arms to stop them from arresting the leaders.
 Others attempted to close the pathway created by the special constables.
 Some of the soldiers now began to use their sabres to cut their way through the crowd.



Officials arrested the speakers and the organisers of the meeting, as well as the
newspaper reporters at the speakers’ area.
The military commander reported to a town official at 1.50 p.m. When he asked
Hulton what was happening, he replied: "Good God, Sir, don't you see they are
attacking the Yeomanry? Disperse them."
By 2.00 p.m. the soldiers had cleared most of the crowd from St. Peter's Field. In the
process, eleven people were killed and about 400, including 100 women, were
wounded.

Reformers in Manchester were appalled by the decisions of the magistrates
and the behavior of the soldiers and wrote accounts of what they had
witnessed.

When one of them discovered that a reporter from the London Times had been
arrested and imprisoned, he feared that this was an attempt by the government
to suppress news of the event.
 He sent his report to the editor of The Times. The article that was highly critical of
the magistrates and the yeomanry was published two days later.
 Dubbed ”Peteloo” as a contemptuous reference to Waterloo


After the Peterloo Massacre the Home Secretary sent a letter of
congratulations to the Manchester magistrates for the action they had taken.
Parliament also passed the Six Acts in an attempt to make sure reform
meetings like the one at St. Peter's Field did not happened again.
The Six Acts
Forbade unauthorized public meetings
 Specified fines for seditious libel
 Required speedy trials for political organizers
 Allowed oppressive measures vs “mobs”
 Prohibited training armed groups
 Officials could search homes of agitators in
certain counties

Historical Sketches and Personal Recollections of
Manchester (1851) Archibald Prentice
“There were haggard-looking men certainly, but the majority were young persons, in their best
Sunday's suits, and the light coloured dresses of the cheerful tidy-looking women relieved the
effect of the dark fustians worn by the men. The " marching order," of which so much was said
afterwards, was what we often see now in the processions of Sunday-school children and
temperance societies. To our eyes the numerous flags seemed to have been brought to add to
the picturesque effect of the pageant. Slowly and orderly the multitudes took their places round
the hustings, which stood on a spot now included under the roof of the Free Trade Hall, near its
south-east corner.
Our company laughed at the fears of the magistrates, and the remark was, that if the men intended
mischief they would not have brought their wives, their sisters, or their children with them. I
passed round the outskirts of the meeting, and mingled with the groups that stood chatting
there. I occasionally asked the women if they were not afraid to be there, and the usual
laughing reply was - " What have we to be afraid of?“
I saw Hunt arrive, and heard the shouts of the sixty thousand persons by whom he was
enthusiastically welcomed, as the carriage in which he stood made its way through the dense
crowd to the hustings. I proceeded to my dwelling-house in Salford, intending to return in about
an hour or so to witness in what manner so large a meeting would separate.
I had not been at home more than a quarter of an hour when a wailing sound was heard from the
main street, and, rushing out, I saw people running in the direction of Pendleton, their faces
pale as death, and some with blood trickling down their cheeks. It was with difficulty I could get
any one to stop and tell me what had happened. The unarmed multitude, men, women, and
children, had been attacked with murderous results by the military.
England: Series of Reform Acts:

Great Reform Act of 1832 : passed Commons, rejected in Peers, so George IV made
new peers, enough to enact it.

Problem it addressed=inequality of representation in Commons
 Representation by counties (2 each in England, 1 each in Wales, Scotland,
Ireland) supposed to represent landowners;
 Representation elected by boroughs standing for merchant/artisans, but
rotten” boroughs (little population because of Industrial Revolution
redistribution of population); populous cities poorly represented; “pocket”
boroughs: one aristocrat pretty much appointed the MP
 Increased suffrage by 50-80%; one in six could vote
 Redistributed seats in Parliament to eliminate “rotten boroughs,” enfranchise
cities;
 Reduced property restriction on eligibility for office; kept gender inequity

Chartist movement: coalition of workers, political activists and reformers
Wanted universal manhood suffrage, secret ballot, salaries for MP’s (so non
rich could run)
 Presented Great Charter (petition) of 1839 with 2 million names, petition of
grievances, demand for reform; ignored until revolution threatened


2nd Reform Act


Reduced voting qualifications: upped electorate by 2 million
1884 Reform Act

Universal manhood suffrage (but not women)
Reforms (continued)

Poor Laws of 1834: to take care of old, infirm, unable to work by means
of Work Houses, where very poor had to live, with harsh conditions (to
motivate them to get OUT), overseen by Guardians chosen from mid/upper
classes to collect taxes to support, get employment, oversee conditions,
food, etc.

Catholic Emancipation Act


Afraid of Ireland as basis of Catholic/French alliance against Britain: Act of
Union 1800=Ireland and England one country, but most couldn’t serve in office,
because Catholic; 1829 lifted much of restrictions against Catholics in office in
all Britain.
Women’s Suffrage movement: wanted the VOTE

1872: Emeline Pankhurst and the suffragettes had marginal success


Women voted, held office in local governments, school boards, on poor house
committees, as health authorities from the late nineteenth century. Successful, so…
1918 (after WWI hiatus), franchise to women over the age of 30 in 1918;
but only if householders, married to a householder or had a university
degree.
 1928: universal suffrage for all adults over 21 years of age
Queen Victoria


Dau of 4th son of George III (first three died without
children; her father died when she was young
Became queen at 18 in 1837

In early part of her reign, influenced by her first Prime
Minister, Lord Melbourne, and her husband, Prince
Albert, whom she married in 1840.
 Both men taught her much about how to be a ruler in a
“constitutional monarchy” where the monarch had very
few powers but much influence.
 Madly in love with her husband, she had 9 children, who
married into most of the royal families of the great
powers, including Prussia, Russia, etc.

When Albert died, she became a recluse, staying in
mourning (only wearing black)



(became Mrs. Brown?)
Development of strong republican movement
In 1870’s, with encouragement of Disraeli, resumed
public duties

Idea of Constitutional monarch above politics evolved,
though she often took a stand (conservative)
 Actually mediated between Commons and Lords during
Disestablishment controversy which ended in the Irish
Church Disestablishment Act of 1869 and the 1884
Reform Act.
Victorian Prime Ministers: Disraeli
•
•
•
•
•
Jewish, upper middle class family; married
very rich (but loved)
Conservative Tory party—believed that
aristocrats and poor should be allies; rich
use their resources to help the poor
As PM, many reform bills to help, including
Food and Drug, Health reforms
Imperialist; wanted British superiority; made
Victoria “Empress of India”
Because of his views, Victoria liked him.
Victorian Prime Ministers-Gladstone





Aristocratic family, married to an
aristocrat
Liberal party leader/PM; Victoria
didn’t like him.
Championed universal suffrage,
relief for poor, Home Rule for
Ireland
Many reform bills passed with his
support.
Competitor to Disraeli: mutual
dislike.

Russia: Enlightenment to
Reactionary
Alexander I
 Enlightened,
granted more freedom to
press, looked at liberating the serfs
 One of powers supporting Congress of
Vienna, concert system
 Conflict between support for
“confederation of Europe,” role as
defender of the Orthodox Church
against the Ottoman Turks
 Metternich’s cynical manipulations,
supported the Greeks vs the Ottoman
Turks, not Concert system he helped
to design, disillusioned Alexander
 Alexander provoked war with Turkey:
Crimean War
 Became mystic, paranoid after kidnap
attempt: went to S. Russia for wife’s
Crimean War






Russ struggling for control of Black Sea and port there to go through
Dardanelles into Mediterranean
1823: Brit and France joined Russ in supporting Greek independence
against Turkey to keep Russ from getting territory and influence
Russ war vs Turkey 1929-1833: Balkan “protectorate of Russ” changed to
“protectorate of Europe” by concert
July 1853: Russ seized Turkish territories (pretext: protecting Christians
there vs Muslims); France and Britain (+ Sardinia = Italy) support Turkey,
drive Russia out
United powers vs Russ decide to settle Crimea once and for all, land on
Crimean peninsula and attack Sevastopol
Horrible 18 month war: useless carnage, but stopped Russ in Balkans


Charge of the light brigade: points out problem of aristocratic command of army
Fighting on Crimea, blockade and attack on Russian Baltic ports crippled Russ
economy
 Treaty of Paris: Russ fleet out of Black Sea, Russ out of Baltics
 War put end to Concert System: paved way for Germany and Italy
Forced
Migration of
Russia’s
Jews
The
Ottoman
Empire -Late 19c
“The
Sicker
Man of
Europe”

Alexander succeeded by Nicholas I (brother)
1825
 Alexander
assassinated brutally
 Nicholas opposite from their father: wanted all power,
autocratic
 Brutally put down revolts and leaders


Polish Revolution part of 1830 wave, brutally
repressed
Later Polish Revolution (1863-4)
Leadup to WWI, Russian Revolution:

Alexander II (R 1855-81) and the Emancipation Edict 1861






Son of Nicholas I, tried to modernize the country
Emancipated serfs, but had no way to integrate them into society,
economy without much suffering
At first allowed liberal self government of Poles, then when rebelled,
clamped down violently
Tried to expand Russian territory at the expense of Turks, Chinese
About to grant a liberal constitution when assassinated by “people’s
party” assassin
Alexander III (R 1881-94)

Reactionary autocrat who reigned so strictly, that Russia was stablilized
and capitalism and the industrial revolution could take root there
 Kept Russia out of European wars
Meanwhile, in the German
speaking countries….

Congress of Vienna set up the German Confederation to
replace Napoleon’s Confederation of the Rhine




Roughly same as the old HRE, except down to 36 states from
300
Each an independent entity, united mainly for “common
defense,” with Diet as legislature in Frankfurt
Emperor of Austria served as executive, but only represented on
Diet
Through a series of well picked conflicts with neighboring
states, Bismarck was able to guide Prussia into
absorbing the rest of what is now Germany
German Unification 1848-1871

Steps
 German Confederation with Austria ruling, Prussia separate, but
strong
 Zollverein: German trade confederation (1834-) to which all
German speaking states except for Austria and some states
in the Northwest (Hanover, among others) belonged:
 lifted trade barriers between the states, setting standard
taxes, weights and measurements, and currency
 . Bismarck used this organization, which had no central
bureaucracy or public presence for liberals to attack in
1848-9 revolutions, to push Prussian trade policies onto
the other states, get them ready for unification
 Bismarck maneuvered first Denmark, then Austria into war
and absorbed Schleswig and Holstein (from Denmark)
Southern German territories he “wins” from Austria, along
with some territories part of the German Confederation that
allied with him to help with the war
 North German Confederation
 German Empire
Heroes
Otto von Bismarck--diplomatic genius
Helmut von Moltke--military genius
Frederick Wilhelm IV
 Opposition
Junkers: The Prussian aristocracy
Austria
Everyone else in the old HRE
Everyone else in Europe

Helmuth von Moltke


Chief of Staff of Prussian
Army, 1857-1878
Military Genius

Planned for Aggression

Built Efficient Army


Modernized Nation for War



Newer rear loading “rifles”
Saw the importance of rail
transport in military mobilization
Used telegraph to communicate
with military
Genius at Tactics



Divide and Conquer
“Blitzkrieg” attacks
Central Command to coordinate


Almost foiled by Kaiser’s
relatives in command of some of
armies
Take advantage of enemy
weakness
Otto von Bismarck



Prime Minister of
Prussia 1862-1871
Imperial German
Chancellor 18711890
Personality:
 Realpolitik
 “Blood
and Iron”
 “The Iron Chancellor
Vintage Bismarck:

The less people know about how sausages and laws are
made, the better they’ll sleep at night.

Never believe in anything until it has been officially denied.

The great questions of the day will not be settled by
speeches and majority decisions—that was the mistake of
1848-1849—but by blood and iron.

I am bored. The great things are done. The German Reich
is made.

A generation that has taken a beating is always followed by
a generation that deals one.

Some damned foolish thing in the Balkans will provoke the
next war.
1848 Rebellions toward liberalism
Revolution of 1848 in Germany
(the March Revolution)
In the south and the west of Germany, large
popular assemblies and mass demonstrations
took place. They primarily demanded freedom of
the press, freedom of assembly, arming of the
people, and a national German parliament
2 main issues of controversy
 liberal constitutionalism
 German unification
Frankfurt Parliament:
May ’48-Mar.’49

Drew up moderate liberal
constitution for a united Germany

Too liberal for the conservatives,
too conservative for radicals

Disagreed on the issue of
unification


(grossdeutsch with Austria vs.
kleindeutsch without Austria)
Frederick Wilhelm IV of Prussia
refused the crown offered him by
the Parliament
Step one: Danish War



Arose over
Duchies of
Schleswig &
Holstein
Belonged to
Denmark but
majority of pop.
German
Prussia & Austria
declare war on
Denmark, 1864
Step 2: AustroPrussian war
(7 weeks’ War)

Bismarck promised
Venetia to Italy in
exchange for alliance

1866 Austria defeated
by Prussia at Battle of
Sadowa

Peace of Prague, 1866
Bismarck at the helm:
Creation of the Northern German Confederation, 1867
 Shortly following the victory of Prussia, Bismarck eliminated the
Austrian led German Confederation.
 He then established a new North German Confederation which
Prussia could control 
Peace of Prague
Franco-Prussian War 1870/71

Prussia wants war
 Payback
for what Prussia lost at the Congress
of Vienna
 Blatant grab for territory at expense of
weakened France
 BUT Bismarck knows he must act quickly, or
other nations will join France to stop Prussia

Pretense for War: Bismarck finds a cause
 Hohenzollern


Candidacy for the Spanish throne
1868 revolt in Spain.
Spanish leaders wanted Prince Leopold von Hohenz.
[a cousin to the Kaiser & a Catholic], as their new king.
 France
protested & his name was withdrawn.
Ems Dispatch: Catalyst for War
 The Fr. Ambassador
asked the Kaiser at
Ems to apologize to
Nap. III for supporting
Leopold.
 Bismarck “doctored”
the telegram from
Wilhelm to the French
Ambassador to make
it seem as though the
Kaiser had insulted
Napoleon III.


Prussians invade France
Quickly defeat the French decisively



Propaganda much like what
would be used later in WWI
Prussian soldier “abusing”
French maiden
Prussian “barbarian” vs French
knight
The peace process: Napoleon III
and Bismarck after the war ended
Consequences of the War
Treaty of Frankfurt [1871]





The Second French Empire collapsed and was
replaced by the Third French Republic.
The Italians took Rome and made it their capital.
Russia put warships in the Black Sea [in defiance of
the 1856 Treaty of Paris that ended the Crimean War].
France paid a huge indemnity and was occupied by
German troops until it was paid.
France ceded Alsace-Lorraine to Germany [a region
rich in iron deposits with a flourishing textile industry].
Wilhelm I




Succeeded Friedrich
Wilhelm III of Prussia
Shared Bismarck’s
goals for a united
Germany dominated
by Prussia
After Franco Prussian
War, rest of German
Confederation unites
with Prussia to form
Germany
Wilhelm crowned
“kaiser” (from Caesar
= emperor)
Germany under Bismarck
Kulturkampf: Anti-Catholic Program




Take education and marriage out of the
hands of the clergy  civil marriages only
recognized.
The Jesuits are expelled from Germany.
The education of Catholic priests would be
under the supervision of the German
government.
Afterwards, Bismarck carefully approached
the pope to appease the Church, called
rapprochement of Bismarck with Pope Leo
XIII
Results: Bismarck’s Europe 1871-90
•No more German
expansion
•German alliance with
Austria
•German alliance with
Russia
•Diplomatic isoIation of
France
And what
about
Italy?

Congress of
Vienna”
 Territories
belonging to
Austrian
(Habsburg)
Empire restored
 Kingdom of
Sardinia
 Papal territories
restored
Disunity to Union

Makeup of Italy after
Congress of Vienna










Lombardy and Venetia
(Austrian territories)
Piedmont
Tuscany
Papal States
Kingdom of the Two
Sicilies
“The Duchies” (Parma &
Modena)
Unification of Italy and
Germany two of the most
significant examples of
nationalism
Unification of Italy was not
a product of a mass
movement.
Majority wanted status quo
The minority that wanted
unification couldn’t agree
on how
Plans for Unification
Make Italy a confederation of states
under Papal leadership
 Make Italy a republic which meant
expelling the Austrians (Giuseppi
Mazzani)
 Unification by way of Piedmont-Sardinia

Strong support for idea
 The people had a constitution

Three Stages to Italian Unification

The Revolutions of 1848

“The Decade of Preparation” 1849-59

Italian Unification 1859-1870
Step ONE: Revolutions of 1848
Republics declared throughout Italy
 Piedmont tries to annex Lombardy but
defeated by Austrian army
 Garibaldi’s defense of the Roman
Republic

Italian Nationalist Leaders
Count Cavour
[The “Head”]
Giuseppi
Garibaldi
[The “Sword”]
King Victor
Emmanuel II
Giuseppi
Mazzini
[The “Heart”]
Giuseppi Mazzini
(the heart: man of ideas)

Italian nationalist

Ardent republican

Theorist and
organizer of Italian
Unity

("Young Italy") 1831
Cavour (the head:genius of politics)

Background:






Younger son of a Sardinian noble
family
Army officer
Resigned and took over family
estate
Financier , industrialist, founder
of Bank of Turin, shipping and
railway construction promoter
Avid reader
Personality



Energetic, Hard worker with a
good memory
Ambitious: self-confident and
utterly ruthless
Did not delegate authority

"Father of Modern Italy“





1847 founded The Resurgence a political journal (moderate
liberalism)
Elected to the assembly 1848
1850 elected minister of agriculture, industry, commerce and the
Navy
1851 minister of finance
The political & diplomatic genius of the
Risorgimento
 First
concerned about Piedmont than with the Italian
Question
 Piedmont needed time to prepare
 Cavour strengthen Piedmont’s economy
 Reformed taxation system
 Borrowed money to stimulate economy and build army
 Sponsored construction of highways,
railroads,harbors, and canals.
Step Two: “The Decade of
Preparation” 1849-59

1852 : Cavour becomes
Prime Minister of Piedmont
 Italian
liberals accept leadership
of Piedmont in unification


If Piedmont was going to unify Italy,
would have to fight Austria
 Cavour turned toward France for
assistance
Piedmont and Crimean War (1853-56)
 First significant foreign policy move
 Wanted Britain and France as
allies
 His contribution to the war allowed
him to sit at the peace conference
 Gave Cavour time to denounce
Austria and plant seeds
Plans begin to take effect when:


1858 Napolean III informed Cavour of his desire for an Alliance
(Plombieres)
Conditions for French Help








War on Austria be undertaken for non-revolutionary ends
War could be justified
Acceptable European public opinion
Get Austria out of Italy
4 state confederation (Pope)
Napoleon III’s cousin would control a state in ItalyNapoleon III would also
get Piedmont’s provinces of Nice and Savoy
Discussed at Plombieres but not agreed upon until later
Cost of war would be paid for by the two northern states of Italy.
Step 3: Italian Unification 1859-1870
Under leadership
of PiedmontSardinia
 Monarchy with
Enlightened
Victor Emmanuel
II as king

War of 1859

Needed a provocation for war






Piedmont was given three days to respond



Cavour enlisted Austrian deserters into the Sardinian army
Gave refuge to fugitives of Austrian rule
Encouraged revolt with Austria
1859 mobilized its army\
Vienna sent ultimatum demanding demobilization
Vienna had made a stupid move and moved too quickly
France was trying to get Piedmont to stand down, but Vienna pushed
the issue
The end came quickly


Battle of Solferino (June 1859) combined French-Piedmont armies
defeat Austria and drive her out of Lombardy, annexed by Piedmont
BUT Napoleon asked Francis Joseph for an armistice
War aborted, Cavour unhappy

Why did Napoleon end the war?
 He
realized he would not be able to control Italy as he
had thought
 The war was costly in blood and money
 Feared French public opinion
 Piedmont had exaggerated its ability to help in the
war

Why did Austria want peace?
 Financial
situation grew worst
 War increased the danger of national uprising in
Austrian Empire

BUT—no Italy: Cavour Resigned

Peace of Villafranca





Austria gave up Lombardy to France
Austria retained Venetia
Italians were not happy with Villafranca
Some central Italian states ask to be annexed by
Piedmont (Tuscany, Papal States)
Pressure from Britain forced Napoleon III to make peace
with Piedmont


Asked King of Piedmont (Victor Emmanuel II) to reinstate Cavour
Cavour got central states and Napoleon III got Nice and Savoy
Garibaldi (the man of action)

Personality

a single-minded Italian patriot
 Took action no matter how great the
odds
 Colorful and charismatic military
leader

Importance

Supported emancipation of women,
social reform, and universal suffrage
 Military hero of Risorgimiento
 Romantic cult figure of the 19th
century

Early Adventures





Fell under the influence of Mazzini
Joined the Young Italy movement
Soldier of fortune in South America
(12 yrs)
1848 back in Italy
1859 fought against the Austrians
Garibaldi vs Cavour: Italian Unity?

Garibaldi began to assemble a corps of volunteers
(“The Thousand”)
 Cavour
opposed Garibaldi, did nothing to help him
 Cavour got Garibaldi to go to Sicily, landed May 11, 1860
 Garibaldi proclaimed himself dictator of Sicily ( for Italy and
Victor Emmanuel II)

Successes
 Military
successes against the regime: Garibaldi could not
lose
 Garibaldi’s movement grew with each success, so Cavour
began to fear Garibaldi’s popularity and possible plans

Garibaldi gained firm control of southern Italy

To counter him, Cavour moved
toward the Papal States

Cavour demanded Pope
demobilize his troops, but the Pope
rejected Cavour‘s ultimatum
 Piedmont forces crossed over into
Papal States, fought and defeated
the Papal army


French denounced Cavour’s
actions
Cavour moved with his forces on to
Naples toward Garibaldi’s base of
power


Oct 15, 1860 Garibaldi signed
decree proclaiming all his
conquests would become part of
Italy under the constitutional
monarchy of Victor Emanuel II
1861 the kingdom of Italy was
proclaimed with Victor Emannuel II
as King
Pope Pius IX
Solving the Rivalry: unification

Cavour moved with his forces on to Naples toward Garibaldi’s
base of power



1861 the kingdom of Italy was proclaimed with Victor Emannuel
II as King
However, the rivalry continued




Oct 15, 1860 Garibaldi signed decree proclaiming all his conquests
would become part of Italy under the constitutional monarchy of Victor
Emanuel II
Cavour gave no civil or military position to Garibaldi after the war
Garibaldi retired to his home (die 1883)
Cavour died two months later
Rome and Venetia were still not part of Italy



Garibaldi tried to take Rome 1862, 1866, 1867 but failed
Eventually, Venice joined to Italy (as agreement ending Austro-Prussian
war)
Rome joined Italy 1870: unification complete
German and Italian Unification

German
States


 Prussia:

Greatest State


 Bismarck:

Garibaldi fitting the
boot of Italy onto Victor
Emmanuel II
Piedmont Sardinia:
Greatest State
Dynamic Leaders:

Dynamic
Leaders
Like a Prime
Minister. Runs
the show
 William I: King
of Prussia
Italian States
Cavour: Like a
Prime Minister, runs
the show
Victor Emmanuel:
King of
Piedmont/Sardinia
Mazzini/GaribaldiBoth want a
Republic, Cavour
does not.
German and Italian Unification

German States’ Issues:
 Prussia seeks a
common German State
 Prussia will lead,others
have to follow
 Have to deal with
liberals who do not want
$ spent on the military
 Austria, another German
State, is nearly as
strong as Prussia

Italian States’ Issues:


Have never been unified
since the fall of Rome
Have separate Agendas



North = Industry
South = Agriculture
Have a strong foreign
presence in their area


Austria
France
German and Italian Unification

German States: Agendas
of the players--who wants
what?
 Bismarck – wants to
increase the size of
Prussia
 If it means a unified
Germany, so be it
 He is a Prussian before
he is a German
 William (Wilhelm) I –
willing to let Bismarck
Run the show

Italian States: Agendas of
the players--who wants
what?
Cavour – feels that a
strong, industrial Piedmont
will lead the rest of the
States. $ = Power =
unification
 Mazzini and Cavour want
unification based on
political ideology: A
Republic
 Victor Emmanuel - willing
to let Cavour run the show

German and Italian Unification

German States:
Obstacles to Unification
Austria- a powerful “German
State” with a different
agenda from Prussia
 France: still controls land
that used to belong to
Prussia
 Political Differencesbetween Bismarck and the
wealthy classes (over $ for
war)
 German intellectuals—who
hope for a more democratic
republic


Italian States:
Obstacles to Unification
Austria – controls/manages
Piedmont
 France –controls parts of the
center of Italy
 Political differences – Between
Cavour, who has no problem
having a King as long as Italy is
unified, and Garibaldi, who
wants Italy to be a Republic.

German and Italian Unification






German States Steps to
Unification
Bismarck raises $ for the
Military
Allies with Russia to take back
Schleswig and Holstein
Provokes Austrians to war and
crushes them in 7 Weeks
Provokes French and crushes
them (revenge for Napoleon)
Establishes unified Germany in
1871




Italian States
Steps to
Unification
Sardinia provokes Austria into
battle and beats them (with
French help)
Garibaldi gathers his army
“Red Shirts” in the south; they
conquer and move north
Cavour links with
Garibaldi,and France is finally
is driven from Italy because
it’s being beaten by Prussia
German and Italian Unification

Germany: Results of
Unification




A strong, Industrialized
and militarized Germany
Austria is “on its own”
Increased tension
between France and
Germany
The seeds of WWI

Italy: Results of
Unification



Remaining division
between North and South
Italy
Political unity, but not
cultural or social unity
Connection/identification
between Italy and
Germany makes them
allies in WWI & WWII