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Chapter 4.1 Mathematical Concepts Applied Trigonometry Trigonometric functions Defined using right triangle y sin a h h y a x x cos a h y sin a tan a x cos a 2 Applied Trigonometry Angles measured in radians radians degrees p 180 180 p degrees radians Full circle contains 2p radians 3 Applied Trigonometry Sine and cosine used to decompose a point into horizontal and vertical components y r r sin a a r cos a x 4 Applied Trigonometry Trigonometric identities sin a sin a cos a sin a p 2 cos a cos a sin a cos a p 2 tan a tan a sin 2 a cos 2 a 1 cos a sin a p 2 sin a cos a p 2 sin a sin a p sin a p cos a cos a p cos a p 5 Applied Trigonometry Inverse trigonometric functions Return angle for which sin, cos, or tan function produces a particular value a = z, then a = sin-1 z -1 z If cos a = z, then a = cos -1 z If tan a = z, then a = tan If sin 6 Applied Trigonometry Law of sines a b c sin a sin sin g a c Law of cosines c 2 a 2 b2 2ab cos g b g a Reduces to Pythagorean theorem when g = 90 degrees 7 Vectors and Matrices Scalars represent quantities that can be described fully using one value Mass Time Distance Vectors describe a magnitude and direction together using multiple values 8 Vectors and Matrices Examples of vectors Difference between two points Velocity of a projectile Magnitude is the distance between the points Direction points from one point to the other Magnitude is the speed of the projectile Direction is the direction in which it’s traveling A force is applied along a direction 9 Vectors and Matrices Vectors can be visualized by an arrow The length represents the magnitude The arrowhead indicates the direction Multiplying a vector by a scalar changes the arrow’s length 2V V –V 10 Vectors and Matrices Two vectors V and W are added by placing the beginning of W at the end of V Subtraction reverses the second vector W V V+W W V–W V –W V 11 Vectors and Matrices An n-dimensional vector V is represented by n components In three dimensions, the components are named x, y, and z Individual components are expressed using the name as a subscript: V 1, 2,3 Vx 1 Vy 2 Vz 3 12 Vectors and Matrices Vectors add and subtract componentwise V W V1 W1 ,V2 W2 , ,Vn Wn V W V1 W1 ,V2 W2 , ,Vn Wn 13 Vectors and Matrices The magnitude of an n-dimensional vector V is given by V n 2 V i i 1 In three dimensions, this is V Vx2 Vy2 Vz2 14 Vectors and Matrices A vector having a magnitude of 1 is called a unit vector Any vector V can be resized to unit length by dividing it by its magnitude: V ˆ V V This process is called normalization 15 Vectors and Matrices A matrix is a rectangular array of numbers arranged as rows and columns A matrix having n rows and m columns is an n m matrix 1 2 3 At the right, M is a M 2 3 matrix 4 5 6 If n = m, the matrix is a square matrix 16 Vectors and Matrices The entry of a matrix M in the i-th row and j-th column is denoted Mij For example, 1 2 3 M 4 5 6 M 11 1 M 21 4 M 12 2 M 22 5 M 13 3 M 23 6 17 Vectors and Matrices The transpose of a matrix M is denoted MT and has its rows and columns exchanged: 1 2 3 M 4 5 6 1 4 T M 2 5 3 6 18 Vectors and Matrices An n-dimensional vector V can be thought of as an n 1 column matrix: V V1 , V2 , V1 V2 , Vn Vn Or a 1 n row matrix: V T V1 V2 Vn 19 Vectors and Matrices Product of two matrices A and B Number of columns of A must equal number of rows of B Entries of the product are given by m AB ij Aik Bkj k 1 If A is a n m matrix, and B is an m p matrix, then AB is an n p matrix 20 Vectors and Matrices Example matrix product 2 3 2 1 8 13 M 1 1 4 5 6 6 M 11 2 2 3 4 M 12 2 1 3 5 13 8 M 21 1 2 1 4 6 M 22 1 1 1 5 6 21 Vectors and Matrices Matrices are used to transform vectors from one coordinate system to another In three dimensions, the product of a matrix and a column vector looks like: M 11 M 21 M 31 M 12 M 22 M 32 M 13 Vx M 11Vx M 12Vy M 13Vz M 23 Vy M 21Vx M 22Vy M 23Vz M 33 Vz M 31Vx M 32Vy M 33Vz 22 Vectors and Matrices The n n identity matrix is denoted In For any n n matrix M, the product with the identity matrix is M itself I nM = M MIn = M The identity matrix is the matrix analog of the number one In has entries of 1 along the main diagonal and 0 everywhere else 23 Vectors and Matrices An n n matrix M is invertible if there exists another matrix G such that 1 0 0 1 MG GM I n 0 0 0 0 1 The inverse of M is denoted M-1 24 Vectors and Matrices Not every matrix has an inverse A noninvertible matrix is called singular Whether a matrix is invertible can be determined by calculating a scalar quantity called the determinant 25 Vectors and Matrices The determinant of a square matrix M is denoted det M or |M| A matrix is invertible if its determinant is not zero For a 2 2 matrix, a b a b det ad bc c d c d 26 The Dot Product The dot product is a product between two vectors that produces a scalar The dot product between two n-dimensional vectors V and W is given by n V W VW i i i 1 In three dimensions, V W VxWx VyWy VzWz 27 The Dot Product The dot product satisfies the formula V W V W cos a a is the angle between the two vectors Dot product is always 0 between perpendicular vectors If V and W are unit vectors, the dot product is 1 for parallel vectors pointing in the same direction, -1 for opposite 28 The Dot Product The dot product of a vector with itself produces the squared magnitude VV V V V 2 Often, the notation V 2 is used as shorthand for V V 29 The Dot Product The dot product can be used to project one vector onto another V a V cos a VW W W 30 The Cross Product The cross product is a product between two vectors the produces a vector The cross product only applies in three dimensions The cross product is perpendicular to both vectors being multiplied together The cross product between two parallel vectors is the zero vector (0, 0, 0) 31 The Cross Product The cross product between V and W is V W VyWz VzWy , VzWx VxWz , VxWy VyWx A helpful tool for remembering this formula is the pseudodeterminant ˆi ˆj kˆ V W Vx Vy Vz Wx Wy Wz 32 The Cross Product The cross product can also be expressed as the matrix-vector product 0 V W Vz Vy Vz 0 Vx Vy Wx Vx Wy 0 Wz The perpendicularity property means V W V 0 V W W 0 33 The Cross Product The cross product satisfies the trigonometric relationship V W V W sin a This is the area of the parallelogram formed by V V and W ||V|| sin a a W 34 The Cross Product The area A of a triangle with vertices P1, P2, and P3 is thus given by A 1 P2 P1 P3 P1 2 35 The Cross Product Cross products obey the right hand rule If first vector points along right thumb, and second vector points along right fingers, Then cross product points out of right palm Reversing order of vectors negates the cross product: W V V W Cross product is anticommutative 36 Stop Here 37 Transformations Calculations are often carried out in many different coordinate systems We must be able to transform information from one coordinate system to another easily Matrix multiplication allows us to do this 38 Transformations Suppose that the coordinate axes in one coordinate system correspond to the directions R, S, and T in another Then we transform a vector V to the RST system as follows Rx W R S T V Ry Rz Sx Sy Sz Tx Vx Ty Vy Tz Vz 39 Transformations We transform back to the original system by inverting the matrix: Rx V Ry Rz Sx Sy Sz 1 Tx Ty W Tz Often, the matrix’s inverse is equal to its transpose—such a matrix is called orthogonal 40 Transformations A 3 3 matrix can reorient the coordinate axes in any way, but it leaves the origin fixed We must at a translation component D to move the origin: Rx W Ry Rz Sx Sy Sz Tx Vx Dx Ty Vy Dy Tz Vz Dz 41 Transformations Homogeneous coordinates Four-dimensional space Combines 3 3 matrix and translation into one 4 4 matrix Rx Ry W Rz 0 Sx Tx Sy Ty Sz Tz 0 0 Dx Vx Dy Vy Dz Vz 1 Vw 42 Transformations V is now a four-dimensional vector The w-coordinate of V determines whether V is a point or a direction vector If w = 0, then V is a direction vector and the fourth column of the transformation matrix has no effect If w 0, then V is a point and the fourth column of the matrix translates the origin Normally, w = 1 for points 43 Transformations The three-dimensional counterpart of a four-dimensional homogeneous vector V is given by Vx Vy Vz V3D , , Vw Vw Vw Scaling a homogeneous vector thus has no effect on its actual 3D value 44 Transformations Transformation matrices are often the result of combining several simple transformations Translations Scales Rotations Transformations are combined by multiplying their matrices together 45 Transformations Translation matrix M translate 1 0 0 0 0 0 Tx 1 0 Ty 0 1 Tz 0 0 1 Translates the origin by the vector T 46 Transformations Scale matrix M scale a 0 0 0 0 0 0 b 0 0 0 c 0 0 0 1 Scales coordinate axes by a, b, and c If a = b = c, the scale is uniform 47 Transformations Rotation matrix M z -rotate cos q sin q 0 0 sin q 0 0 cos q 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 Rotates points about the z-axis through the angle q 48 Transformations Similar matrices for rotations about x, y M x -rotate M y -rotate 1 0 0 0 0 cos q sin q 0 0 sin q cos q 0 0 0 0 1 0 sin q 0 1 0 0 0 cos q 0 0 0 1 cos q 0 sin q 0 49 Transformations Normal vectors transform differently than do ordinary points and directions A normal vector represents the direction pointing out of a surface A normal vector is perpendicular to the tangent plane If a matrix M transforms points from one coordinate system to another, then normal vectors must be transformed by (M-1)T 50 Geometry A line in 3D space is represented by P t S tV S is a point on the line, and V is the direction along which the line runs Any point P on the line corresponds to a value of the parameter t Two lines are parallel if their direction vectors are parallel 51 Geometry A plane in 3D space can be defined by a normal direction N and a point P Other points in the plane satisfy N Q P 0 N Q P 52 Geometry A plane equation is commonly written Ax By Cz D 0 A, B, and C are the components of the normal direction N, and D is given by D N P for any point P in the plane 53 Geometry A plane is often represented by the 4D vector (A, B, C, D) If a 4D homogeneous point P lies in the plane, then (A, B, C, D) P = 0 If a point does not lie in the plane, then the dot product tells us which side of the plane the point lies on 54 Geometry Distance d from a point P to a line S+tV P P S d S P S V V V 55 Geometry Use Pythagorean theorem: P S V d P S V 2 2 Taking square root, d P S 2 2 P S V 2 V2 If V is unit length, then V 2 = 1 56 Geometry Intersection of a line and a plane Let P(t) = S + t V be the line Let L = (N, D) be the plane We want to find t such that L P(t) = 0 Lx S x Ly S y Lz S z Lw L S t LV LxVx LyVy LzVz Careful, S has w-coordinate of 1, and V has w-coordinate of 0 57 Geometry If L V = 0, the line is parallel to the plane and no intersection occurs Otherwise, the point of intersection is L S P t S V LV 58