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Middle East in Transition
Other Middle
Eastern Issues
Middle East in Transition
 Islamic
Fundamentalism
 Water Resources
 The Kurds
 Iran and Regional Stability
Middle East in Transition
Islamic Fundamentalism

Definitions
Fundamentalism – Originated from Christianity,
refers to people who believe in the literal
interpretation of the bible
 Islamic Fundamentalism – those Muslims who
wish to follow a strict, traditional interpretation
of Islam – distinguishing between Muslim
groups based on fundamentalism is misleading
because all Muslims believe in the Koran and
the infallible word of God – the level of
“strictness” is a defining characteristic

Middle East in Transition
Islamic Fundamentalism
 Definitions
 Islamist
– Muslims who wish to follow a
strict interpretation of Islam
 Moderate
Islamists – Generally support the
democratic process
 Radical Islamists – Advocate the use of
violence and terror to create a government
that follows a strict, traditional interpretation
of Islam
Middle East in Transition
Islamic Fundamentalism
 Frustration with the status quo and
lack of progress by some governments
are causing a number of Muslims to
turn toward radical Islam for solutions
 The lines are blurred now on what it
means to be a Muslim and on what
constitutes a legitimate Islamic
government
Middle East in Transition
Islamic Fundamentalism
 Case
Studies
 Egypt
 Saudi
Arabia
 Islamist Militants – Osama Bin Laden
 Iraq
 Middle Eastern Elections
Middle East in Transition
Islamic Fundamentalism
 Egypt
 Long-standing
difference of opinion
and violence between the radical
Islamists and the secular government
Resulted in assassination of Anwar
Sadat
 Continues with today’s
government of Hosni
Mubarak

Middle East in Transition
Islamic Fundamentalism
 Egypt
 Militants
target government officials
and tourists in attempts to destabilize
the government
 1997
– 70 tourists gunned down at an
ancient temple near Luxor – Attack
discredited radical Islamists,
condemned by many Islamist
leaders, and resulted in harsh
crackdown by government
Middle East in Transition
Islamic Fundamentalism

Egypt
Government uses torture and repression on the
militants
 By 2000 violent opposition to the government
subsides and more moderate Islamists, such as
the outlawed Muslim Brotherhood, seek to work
within the political system to create an Islamic
state

In 2000 election, despite government efforts to
discourage their participation, candidates tied to the
Muslim Brotherhood won the second-largest bloc of
seats in parliament
 In 2005 they win a record 20 % of the seats

Middle East in Transition
Islamic Fundamentalism

Egypt
Militant Islamic groups continue to gain support
in the slum areas of Egypt where poverty and
unemployment are widespread
 Violent attacks in Egypt have been largely
suppressed through harsh, repressive
government actions – however, Egyptian
militants are active in international groups such
as al Queda – several Egyptians involved with
9/11 attacks
 The question now is whether the militant groups
will continue making headway in the democratic
process or will they by shut out by the
government forcing them to return to more
violent means of gaining recognition and

Middle East in Transition
Islamic Fundamentalism

Saudi Arabia
Birthplace of Islam and the location of Islam’s
holiest sites, Mecca and Medina
 Since its creation in 1932, Saudi Arabia has been
ruled by the al-Saud family – a Monarchy
 Saudi Arabia officially practices a strict form of
Islam known as Wahhabism
 Its laws are based on the Sharia, the sacred law
of Islam – Sharia comes from interpretations of
the Koran by religious elders


The church/clerics heavily influence social
practices and daily life in Saudi Arabia and
with the government, have significant clout
throughout the Muslim world
Middle East in Transition
Islamic Fundamentalism

Saudi Arabia

Despite the strict Islamist nature of the country,
for decades they have been one of the most
important U.S. allies in the Middle East – strong
economic, military, and political relations
World’s largest exporter of oil
 Third-largest exporter of oil to the U.S.
 Primary staging ground for the 1991 Persian Gulf War,
2003 Second Persian Gulf War and throughout the
1990s and up until 2003 a primary staging and
operating location for U.S. forces in the region
 By the end of 2003 virtually all U.S. troops were
withdrawn from the country to prevent Islamic
extremists from using their presence as a rallying cry
against the government

Middle East in Transition
Islamic Fundamentalism

Saudi Arabia

Understanding Saudi politics and society helps
us understand radical Islam
Schools are run by radical Muslim clerics – focus
heavily on religious studies and often promote antiAmericanism and support to individuals like Osama
bin Laden
 Government supports thousands of Islamic schools
and charities around the world that promote radical
Islam
 Saudi press has often been strongly anti-American

Middle East in Transition
Islamic Fundamentalism

Saudi Arabia

Understanding Saudi politics and society helps
us understand radical Islam
Because of the Saudi’s governmental relations with
the U.S. and its suppression of political freedoms and
its perceived failure to provide economic security for
their large young population, many ordinary Saudis
see the monarchy as corrupt and morally bankrupt –
they turn to radical Islam and target the government
and its U.S. backers verbally and physically
 15 of 19 hijackers involved in 9/11 were Saudi and
starting in 2003 the Saudi government has come under
an increasing number of terrorist attacks

Middle East in Transition
Islamic Fundamentalism

Cross-national Islamist Militants
Radical Islamist groups whose actions cross state
borders – relationship between groups is unclear
 Actions by these groups have made it clear that
they must be confronted and dealt with through a
“war on terrorism”
 A main target in the “war on terrorism” is the al
Qaeda network led by wealthy Saudi, Osama bin
Laden – seeks to unify radical Islamists in
pursuit of a “jihad” against Western powers
and their Middle Eastern allies

Middle East in Transition
Islamic Fundamentalism

Bin Laden was the mastermind and/or
financial backer for at least 4 attacks on the
U.S. or U.S. interests:
1993 bombing of the World Trade Center in New
York City
 1996 bombing of an American military facility in
Dhahran, Saudi Arabia
 1998 bombings of U.S. embassies in
Kenya and Tanzania
 2000 bombing of the USS Cole in
Yemen

17 Killed
Middle East in Transition
Islamic Fundamentalism
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
Following 9/11 Bin Laden
took refuge behind the al
Queda backed government
in Afghanistan – prompted
the U.S. led attack on
Afghanistan and the
continuing search for bin Laden
Important point to remember – Islamist
groups are not attacking Western targets for
the purpose of defeating them militarily or to
occupy their countries, they are doing it to try
and drive the Western presence out of the
Middle East
Middle East in Transition
Islamic Fundamentalism

Iraq
Since 2003, the presence of U.S. military forces
in Iraq has drawn militant Islamist to Iraq from
all over the world – estimates are that up to 2,000
of the 20,000 insurgents in Iraq are foreign
fighters
 In the past, local Iraqi insurgents viewed the
foreign Islamist militants as adversaries;
however, they have now found common cause in
trying to disrupt U.S. attempts at democratic
nation building
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Middle East in Transition
Islamic Fundamentalism
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In many cases, the popularity of Islamist
groups is boosted by their extensive social
welfare programs – they provide health,
education, and other social services to local
communities
For these reasons the Islamist groups are
frequently seen as preferable to the secular
governments which are perceived as corrupt,
neglectful, and oppressive
Middle East in Transition
Islamic Fundamentalism

Islamist election victories have raised a
dilemma for the U.S. – to respect democracy
the U.S. must accept the rise of groups
opposed to its interests

U.S. has labeled some of these groups, such as
Hamas and Hezbollah, as terrorist
organizations - the U.S. supports the democratic
process while refusing to deal with terrorists
Middle East in Transition
Water Resources


Competition over water resources is another
potential source of conflict – 5% of the
world’s population and only 1% of the
world’s water
As with their arguments over land, Israel
and its Arab neighbors have a long history
of competition over water resources – when
original Zionist planners mapped out their
intended homeland they included major
water resources
Middle East in Transition
Water Resources

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Over the years Israel and its Arab neighbors have
participated in complex negotiations over shared
water resources – with growing populations the
existing ground and surface water resources are
not sufficient to meet demand
Israel currently obtains water from the Jordan and
Yarmuk rivers and distributes it to the entire
country and from deep well aquifers which are
unfortunately being depleted and contaminated by
sea water
Middle East in Transition
Water Resources

One downside of Israel controlling the water
supply, since 1967, Palestinians in the Occupied
Territories have faced severe water restrictions
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The Palestinians argue that Israel is exploiting these
resources for their own countries needs and for the
Israeli settlements in the Occupied Territories
Statistically, Israeli settlers have available and use 5
times more water than the Palestinians
This imbalance suggests that any lasting peace plan will
have to address balanced water resources
Middle East in Transition
Water Resources

In another area, Turkey, Iraq, and Syria share
water from the Euphrates River and Turkey and
Iraq share water from the Tigris River


Turkey has developed a $32 billion plan for a series of
dams called the Southeastern Anatolia Project along the
Tigris-Euphrates river - large and multifaceted
development project that includes extensive irrigation
systems and electricity production
Tensions exist between the countries because the dams
regulate the flow of water to downstream countries –
long-standing political divisions have kept the countries
from developing a regional plan
Middle East in Transition
Water Resources

A number of efforts to address the water concerns
have been taken – governments have tried to
improve water collection and distribution
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
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Some have worked to cooperate better with their
neighbors
Saudi Arabia even considered towing icebergs from
Antarctica
Another possibility comes from desalination technology
– Israel leads the world in this area and has plants
located throughout the Persian Gulf

Funded by the tremendous oil wealth in the area
Middle East in Transition
The Kurds


Another important regional issue is the future of
the Kurds – an ethnic group that lives primarily in
Iran, Iraq, and Turkey
The Kurds have never had their own nation-state;
however, they have struggled for years to create
one - Kurdistan

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
Kurdish separatists have used politics
Resorted to violence
Iran, Iraq, and Turkey have refused to consider Kurdish
independence and all three have at times brutally
repressed the Kurds
Kurdistan

Middle East in Transition
The Kurds
Efforts to create an independent Kurdish
state have been slowed by several internal
and external factors
Mid-1990s competing Kurdish factions led to
open warfare – one side asked for help from
Saddam Hussein and was offset by U.S.
airstrikes – resulted in divided control by the
two factions
 Mid to late-1990s – Turkish military attack
Kurdish rebel forces in Iraq and Syria – Syrians
expel Kurds and Kurdish leader captured by
Turkish agents in Kenya, results in protests all
over the world

Middle East in Transition
The Kurds

In late 2002, following the overthrow of
Saddam Hussein, Turkey became concerned
that the Iraqi Kurds would fight for an
independent state in Northern Iraq and that
Turkish Kurds would join the struggle to
create a larger, independent Kurdistan – the
U.S. sought to allay Turkish fears by
guaranteeing to protect Iraq’s territorial
integrity
Middle East in Transition
The Kurds

Since 2002 the Iraqi Kurds have worked to
establish their place in a post-Saddam Iraq
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Based on the political realities, an independent
Kurdistan is not currently possible – better to use
democracy and gain a place in the new government
Kurdish leader Jalal Talibani named president in 2005
making him the first Kurdish head of state in a
predominantly Arab country
Iraqi Kurds have also worked to create a truly
autonomous Kurdish territory; however, control
over oil reserves has sparked a fierce conflict
between the Kurds and other ethnic groups living
in northern Iraq
Middle East in Transition
The Kurds

Since 2004 the Turkish government has been
increasingly concerned with the
autonomous Kurdish region in northern Iraq
Claim they are supporting the Kurdish Workers
Party called the Kongra-Gel
 June 2004 the Kongra-Gel ended a cease-fire
dating back to 1999 – launched attacks into
Turkey from northern Iraq


Under pressure from the European Union
(EU) Turkey has initiated reforms to protect
the human rights and minority interests of
the Kurds – Turkey wants to join the EU
Middle East in Transition
Iran and Regional Stability
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
Up until 1979, Iran was a major ally of the U.S. –
being allied to the U.S. gave the U.S. a way to offset
Soviet influence and help protect the area from
possible Soviet incursion
In 1979 the Ayatollah Khomeini led a radical
Islamic revolution that deposed the Shah – since
then states throughout the Middle East have been
concerned about Iran’s Islamic radicalism

The concern about Iran’s efforts to export it Islamist
radicalism was a major reason why many supported Iraq
in the 1980-88 Iran – Iraq War
Middle East in Transition
Iran and Regional Stability
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After the Iran – Iraq War, Arab states
remained concerned about Iran’s large
military expenditures in purchasing
weapons from Russia, China and North
Korea
The Arab countries, Israel, and much of the
rest of the world are also concerned about
Iran’s development of nuclear capabilities,
even though Iran insists it is only peaceful in
nature
Middle East in Transition
Iran and Regional Stability
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In 1997, liberal Muslim Cleric Muhammad
Khatami became Iran’s President with 70% of the
vote – during his swearing-in ceremony, he called
for a “dialogue of civilization” to improve relations
with the West
Unfortunately, Khatami’s efforts to implement
reform were regularly blocked by the country’s
powerful conservative Muslim clerics or Guardian
Council – used its power to annul laws, close
proreform newspapers, imprison journalists, and
block reformist politicians
from running for
office
Middle East in Transition
Iran and Regional Stability

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Frustration with the slow pace of
reform grew,
especially among the Iranian youth, leading to
increasingly bold protests
and growing
disillusionment – many called
for Khatami’s
resignation
In the fall of 2001, relations between the U.S. and
Iran improved when Iran became an ally in the
effort to overthrow the Taliban regime in
Afghanistan – this relationship broke down in 2002
when President Bush labeled Iran as
part of an “Axis of Evil” and accused
them of pursuing nuclear weapons and
exporting terrorism
Middle East in Transition
Iran and Regional Stability

In 2004 the situation in Iran took a decided
turn for the worse from a U.S. perspective as Iranian parliamentary elections
neared in early 2004, the Guardian
Council banned nearly one-third
of the candidates running for office,
Ahmad Jannati
many of whom were reformers

Many Iranians became angered or indifferent
about Iranian politics – voter turnout was low
and Iran’s conservatives easily took control of
parliament
Middle East in Transition
Iran and Regional Stability
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
In 2005, the socially conservative Mahmoud Ahmadinejad
was elected President giving the conservative faction full
control of Iran and making the prospect of better relations
with the west highly unlikely
In 2005-06, Iran continued its efforts to enrich uranium and
has led to a significant confrontation with the U.S., other
Western states and the U.N.
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When President Ahmadinejad announced that Iran had successfully
enriched uranium, President Bush stated “all options were on the
table” in dealing with Iran’s nuclear program, including military
action
In January 2007, the U.N. Security Council voted unanimously to
impose economic sanctions on Iran – an embargo on nuclear
technology and freezing of assets of certain Iranian companies and
individuals – Iran condemns the action and refuses to halt their
uranium enrichment program
Middle East in Transition
The Persian Gulf War
Questions