Download Information Processing

Cognitive Information Processing
Dr. K. A. Korb
University of Jos
Background
• Information Processing is not a single theory, but
a group of theories that share similar
assumptions about learning
– Use the computer as a metaphor for learning
• Input: Information put into the computer
– Written information, Problem to be solved, Event
• Output: The computer’s finished product
– Information in long-term memory, behavior, speech, solution to a
problem
– Mental operations occur between input and output
• Processing the information
Dr. K. A. Korb
University of Jos
Background
• Goal of Information Processing: Explain how the mind
manages information
– Focus on memory
– Memory is comprised of multiple components
– Information moves through the components in an organized
way
• Research in the Information Processing paradigm examines
the mental processes applied in order to process new
information
– How information is transformed, manipulated, and used
• Developmental research in information processing
examines how the mental processing changes over time
Dr. K. A. Korb
University of Jos
Dr. K. A. Korb
University of Jos
Information Processing Model
Dr. K. A. Korb
University of Jos
Information Processing Model
• Sensory Memory: Briefly holds information from
the sense organs
• Attention: Consciously focusing on a stimulus
• Perception: Attaching meaning to a stimulus
• Working Memory: Store that holds information
as a person processes it
• Long term memory: Permanent information
store
• Metacognition: Awareness of and control over
own cognitive processes
Dr. K. A. Korb
University of Jos
Methodology
• Processing speed: Amount of time taken to
process information
– Every step in mental processing takes a certain
amount of time
– The longer amount of time between input and
output, the greater the cognitive activity is taking
place
– Long reaction times can indicate:
• More mental activity taking place
• Slower processing of information
Dr. K. A. Korb
University of Jos
Methodology
• Error Analysis: Pattern of correct and
incorrect answers determines the rule that is
used to solve a problem
• Microgenetic Method: Many trials of the
same type of problem during the period of
change to get a detailed account of the
change
– Example: Siegler’s Overlapping Waves Model
Dr. K. A. Korb
University of Jos
Developmental Changes in Information
Processing
• Four factors cause developmental changes in
information processing
– Strategies: Activities that children purposefully
utilize to remember information
– Knowledge: Background knowledge relevant to
the information to be remembered
– Metamemory Knowledge about memory
– Capacity: Amount of information held in memory
Dr. K. A. Korb
University of Jos
Strategies
• Infants have good recognition memory for
things of interest
– Little strategy necessary
• Children greatly improve in their memory for
things unrelated to the context of interest
– Requires considerable memory strategies
Dr. K. A. Korb
University of Jos
Strategies: Example
(Flavell, Beach, & Chinsky, 1996)
• Children were asked to remember the order in which
various objects were pointed to. The child’s eyes were
covered during a delay. Trained lip-readers observed
for overt verbal rehearsal.
– Few 5 year olds, half of the 7 year olds, and most 10 year
olds rehearsed
– Children who rehearsed recalled more items than those
who did not
– When directed to rehearse, younger children did and
consequently recalled more items
• Production Deficiency: Young children can use
rehearsal strategies but are deficient at when, where,
and how to use the strategies effectively
Dr. K. A. Korb
University of Jos
Strategies
• What develops:
– Ability to know when, how, and where to use
strategies
– More systematic and organized use of strategies
– The ability to pick the strategy that fits a specific
task and carry out the strategy spontaneously,
quickly, and efficiently (around age 12)
– Older primary children can better select relevant
material and ignore irrelevant material
Dr. K. A. Korb
University of Jos
Knowledge
• Knowledge improves memory recall
• Structure of knowledge is important
– Only increasing factual knowledge does not improve recall
– Rich knowledge base may allow children to automatically
access items to be recalled because items have a rich
network of associations with other items
– Increasing knowledge may need to shift the organization of
the knowledge before recall improves
• Children more likely to remember material they know
and understand
– Older children likely remember more because they
understand more
Dr. K. A. Korb
University of Jos
Knowledge
• As children’s knowledge of the world improves
with experience, recall also improves
– Have more places to link new information
• Rich knowledge base may help choose an
appropriate strategy that helps facilitate recall
Dr. K. A. Korb
University of Jos
Metamemory
• Subset of metacognition
• Pre-primary children have a limited knowledge about
memory (Flavell, Friedrichs, & Hoyt, 1970)
– When asked to predict how many objects can be
remembered, young children predict super-human ability
– When asked whether to make a phone call immediately
upon receiving the number or get drink of water first:
• 40% pre-primary but 75% of primary 5 said better to phone first
– When asked how to recall which Christmas a significant
event happened:
• None of pre-primary but all primary 5 could suggest mentally
recalling each Christmas
Dr. K. A. Korb
University of Jos
Capacity
• Memory capacity increases as the result of:
– Brain maturation
– Improved efficiency in using the capacity through practicing
cognitive skills
• Pattern of increases in memory capacity is the same for a
variety of tasks
– Processing speed is likely the limit of children’s memory capacity
• Faster processing of information leads to more information being
processed
• Older children use greater working memory capacity to
keep more items in short-term memory and invest extra
space in better strategies and metamemory activities
Dr. K. A. Korb
University of Jos
Mechanisms of Development
• Automatization: Perform a task with little
mental attention
– Frees capacity for other cognitive activities e.g.,
constructing a strategy
• Encoding: Selecting information from a
problem and representing the information in
long-term memory
– Children notice and use different information
about the same problem (distance in balance
beam)
Dr. K. A. Korb
University of Jos
Mechanisms of Development
• Generalization: Apply a strategy to new
problems with similar structure
• Strategy Construction: Insight into a problem
and attempting a new approach
• General cognitive development (increase in
knowledge and organization of knowledge)
facilitates work of these mechanisms
Dr. K. A. Korb
University of Jos
Developmental Changes
• Sensory memory: Children’s sensory memories
appear to have the same capacity as adults
• Attention: Older children are more able to:
– Direct their attention to important aspects of the
problem
– Ignore irrelevant information
• Perception: Older children have a greater
knowledge base that assists in accurately
perceiving information
Dr. K. A. Korb
University of Jos
Developmental Changes
• Working Memory: Older children:
– Keep more information in WM (larger capacity)
– Have automatized more tasks so they can focus
their attention to other aspects of a problem
• Long-Term Memory: Older children have a
greater knowledge base
• Metacognition: Older children have more
learning strategies
Dr. K. A. Korb
University of Jos
Comparing Developmental Theories
Active/Passive
Nature/Nurture
Stage/Continuous
Piaget
Active
Both
Stage
Information Processing
Active
Both
Both
Sociocultural
Neo-Piagetians
Social Learning
Psychosocial
Attachment
Ecological Systems
Dr. K. A. Korb
University of Jos
Critique of Information Processing
• Strengths
– Demonstrates the complexity of thought
– Makes specific predictions about a child’s behavior
from moment to moment
– Utilizes rigorous research methods
• Weaknesses
– Focuses more on adult cognitive processing
– Ignores the context of thinking
– Most memory tasks involve artificial memory tasks
(e.g., memorizing a list of unknown words)
• May not describe real-world memory functioning
Dr. K. A. Korb
University of Jos
Implications for Education
• Teach metacognitive study skills
– Choosing a good strategy
– Self-testing
– Planning for study time
• Task Analysis: Identify cognitive skills
necessary for participating in a task
– Ensure that students can perform each skill before
teaching the more advanced skill
Dr. K. A. Korb
University of Jos
Revision
• Describe the four factors that cause changes
in information processing as children age.
• What abilities do children develop as they
mature that assist in changes in thinking? In
other words, what are the mechanisms of
development?
Dr. K. A. Korb
University of Jos