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THIRD EDITION PSYCHOLOGY from inquiry to understanding CHAPTER 7 Memory CONSTRUCTING AND RECONSTRUCTING OUR PASTS Slides prepared by Matthew Isaak Copyright © 2014, © 2011, © 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Learning Objectives LO 7.1 LO 7.2 LO 7.3 LO 7.4 LO 7.5 Identify the ways that memories do and don't accurately reflect experiences. Explain the function, span, and duration of each of the three memory systems. Differentiate the subtypes of long-term memory. Identify methods for connecting new information to existing knowledge. Identify the role that schemas play in the storage of memories. Understanding Psychology: from Inquiry to Understanding, Third Edition Lilienfeld | Lynn | Namy | Woolf Learning Objectives LO 7.6 LO 7.7 Distinguish ways of measuring memory. Describe how the relation between encoding and retrieval conditions influences remembering. LO 7.8 Describe the role of long-term potentiation in memory. LO 7.9 Distinguish different types of amnesia and the relevance of amnesia to the brain's organization of memory. LO 7.10 Identify the key impairments of Alzheimer's disease. Understanding Psychology: from Inquiry to Understanding, Third Edition Lilienfeld | Lynn | Namy | Woolf Learning Objectives LO 7.11 Identify how children's memory abilities change with age. LO 7.12 Identify factors that influence people's susceptibility to false memories and memory errors. LO 7.13 Describe some of the real-world implications of false memories and memory errors. Understanding Psychology: from Inquiry to Understanding, Third Edition Lilienfeld | Lynn | Namy | Woolf Lecture Preview • • • • • How memory operates The three processes of memory Biology of memory Development of memory False memories Understanding Psychology: from Inquiry to Understanding, Third Edition Lilienfeld | Lynn | Namy | Woolf Memory LO 7.1 Identify the ways that memories do and don't accurately reflect experiences. • The retention of information over time • Our memories are surprisingly good in some situations, and surprisingly bad in others. – The paradox of memory Understanding Psychology: from Inquiry to Understanding, Third Edition Lilienfeld | Lynn | Namy | Woolf Paradox of Memory LO 7.1 Identify the ways that memories do and don't accurately reflect experiences. • The same mechanisms that serve us well most of the time can sometimes cause us problems. • Amazing feats of memory – Kim Peek, the real "Rain Man" – Rajan and pi • But memory is also surprisingly malleable. Understanding Psychology: from Inquiry to Understanding, Third Edition Lilienfeld | Lynn | Namy | Woolf Put down your pen and read these lists: LO 7.1 Identify the ways that memories do and don't accurately reflect experiences. Sour Honey Bitter Heart Tooth Nice Sugar Chocolate Taste Tart Understanding Psychology: from Inquiry to Understanding, Third Edition Lilienfeld | Lynn | Namy | Woolf Candy Soda Good Cake Pie Write down all the words you can remember. LO 7.1 Identify the ways that memories do and don't accurately reflect experiences. Understanding Psychology: from Inquiry to Understanding, Third Edition Lilienfeld | Lynn | Namy | Woolf Paradox of Memory LO 7.1 Identify the ways that memories do and don't accurately reflect experiences. • Did you include the word "sweet"? • If so, this is a memory illusion. • Our brains will often go beyond the available information to make sense of the world. – Generally adaptive, but makes us prone to errors Understanding Psychology: from Inquiry to Understanding, Third Edition Lilienfeld | Lynn | Namy | Woolf Reconstructive Memory LO 7.1 Identify the ways that memories do and don't accurately reflect experiences. • When remembering, we actively reconstruct memories, not passively reproduce them. • When you remember yourself taking a walk, you see yourself as an observer would. • How can we explain this? Understanding Psychology: from Inquiry to Understanding, Third Edition Lilienfeld | Lynn | Namy | Woolf Three Systems of Memory LO 7.2 Explain the function, span, and duration of each of the three memory systems. • Sensory, short-term, and long-term memory • Differ in terms of span and duration • Information moves from sensory to STM to LTM, and then back to STM when it is retrieved. Understanding Psychology: from Inquiry to Understanding, Third Edition Lilienfeld | Lynn | Namy | Woolf Figure 7.2 The Three-Memory Model. This model subdivides memory into sensory, short-term, and longterm memory. Information flows from left to right, but also from right to left in the case of information retrieved from long-term memory and moved into short-term memory (Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1968). Understanding Psychology: from Inquiry to Understanding, Third Edition Lilienfeld | Lynn | Namy | Woolf Sensory Memory LO 7.2 Explain the function, span, and duration of each of the three memory systems. • Brief storage of perceptual information before it is passed to short-term memory • Each sense has its own form of sensory memory. • Iconic (visual) lasts only 1 second; echoic (auditory) can last 5-10 seconds. Understanding Psychology: from Inquiry to Understanding, Third Edition Lilienfeld | Lynn | Namy | Woolf Short-term Memory LO 7.2 Explain the function, span, and duration of each of the three memory systems. • Memory system that retains information for limited durations • Closely related to working memory • Brief in duration; 5-20 seconds Understanding Psychology: from Inquiry to Understanding, Third Edition Lilienfeld | Lynn | Namy | Woolf Short-term Memory LO 7.2 Explain the function, span, and duration of each of the three memory systems. • We can lose information in our STM due to two different processes: – Decay – information fades over time – Interference – loss of information due to competition with new, incoming information Understanding Psychology: from Inquiry to Understanding, Third Edition Lilienfeld | Lynn | Namy | Woolf Types of Interference LO 7.2 Explain the function, span, and duration of each of the three memory systems. • Retroactive interference happens when learning new information hampers memory for earlier learning. • Proactive interference happens when earlier learning gets in the way of new learning. • Both are more likely to occur when old and new stimuli are similar. Understanding Psychology: from Inquiry to Understanding, Third Edition Lilienfeld | Lynn | Namy | Woolf Short-term Memory LO 7.2 Explain the function, span, and duration of each of the three memory systems. • The span of STM in adults is 7 + 2 pieces of information: the Magic Number 7. • Can extend our STM span by chunking – organizing information into meaningful groups Understanding Psychology: from Inquiry to Understanding, Third Edition Lilienfeld | Lynn | Namy | Woolf Short-term Memory LO 7.2 Explain the function, span, and duration of each of the three memory systems. KACFJNABISBCFUI vs. CIAUSAFBINBCJFK Understanding Psychology: from Inquiry to Understanding, Third Edition Lilienfeld | Lynn | Namy | Woolf Short-term Memory LO 7.2 Explain the function, span, and duration of each of the three memory systems. • Rehearsal, repeating information in STM, extends its duration. • Maintenance rehearsal is simply repeating STM information in its original form. • Elaborative rehearsal is forming meaningful links among STM material. Understanding Psychology: from Inquiry to Understanding, Third Edition Lilienfeld | Lynn | Namy | Woolf Short-term Memory LO 7.2 Explain the function, span, and duration of each of the three memory systems. • Elaborative rehearsal is usually more effective, consistent with levels-ofprocessing model. • Three levels: visual, phonological (sound-related), and semantic (meaning-related) • Visual is the most shallow; phonological somewhat less shallow; and semantic the deepest. Understanding Psychology: from Inquiry to Understanding, Third Edition Lilienfeld | Lynn | Namy | Woolf Long-term Memory LO 7.2 Explain the function, span, and duration of each of the three memory systems. • Relatively enduring store of information • Includes facts, experiences, and skills we've developed over a lifetime • Differs from STM in several ways Understanding Psychology: from Inquiry to Understanding, Third Edition Lilienfeld | Lynn | Namy | Woolf LO 7.2 Explain the function, span, and duration of each of the three memory systems. SHORT-TERM MEMORY LONG-TERM MEMORY Capacity is… 7-9 stimuli Virtually unlimited Duration is… 20 seconds at most Decades to permastore Mistakes are… Acoustic Semantic Understanding Psychology: from Inquiry to Understanding, Third Edition Lilienfeld | Lynn | Namy | Woolf Figure 7.6 Long Term Memory Retention. The classic work of Harry Bahrick (1984) shows that retention of a foreign language remains remarkably constant for spans of almost 50 years after an initial drop. (Source: Adapted from Bahrick, 1984, Figure 3) Understanding Psychology: from Inquiry to Understanding, Third Edition Lilienfeld | Lynn | Namy | Woolf Primacy and Recency Effects LO 7.2 Explain the function, span, and duration of each of the three memory systems. • Primacy effect – tendency to remember stimuli presented earliest (now in LTM) • Recency effect – tendency to remember stimuli that presented most recently (still in STM) • Also more likely to remember stimuli that are odd or distinctive Understanding Psychology: from Inquiry to Understanding, Third Edition Lilienfeld | Lynn | Namy | Woolf Figure 7.7 The Serial Position Curve. Most psychologists believe that the primacy and recency effects in this curve are the telltale signs of two different memory systems: long-term and short-term memory, respectively. Understanding Psychology: from Inquiry to Understanding, Third Edition Lilienfeld | Lynn | Namy | Woolf Types of LTM LO 7.3 Differentiate the subtypes of long-term memory. • Explicit memory is the process of recalling information intentionally. • Divided into: – Semantic memory (knowledge of facts) – Episodic memory (events in our lives) Understanding Psychology: from Inquiry to Understanding, Third Edition Lilienfeld | Lynn | Namy | Woolf LO 7.3 Differentiate the subtypes of long-term memory. Read this list of words to yourself: House Throw Sleep Queen Tires Guitar Swim Understanding Psychology: from Inquiry to Understanding, Third Edition Lilienfeld | Lynn | Namy | Woolf Types of Long-Term Memory LO 7.3 Differentiate the subtypes of long-term memory. • Implicit memory is recalling information that we don't remember deliberately. – Unlocking our front door – Tying our shoelaces • Includes habituation, classical conditioning, and other forms of learning Understanding Psychology: from Inquiry to Understanding, Third Edition Lilienfeld | Lynn | Namy | Woolf Types of Implicit Memory LO 7.3 Differentiate the subtypes of long-term memory. • Procedural memory refers to motor skills and habits. – Riding a bicycle, touch typing • Priming is our ability to identify a stimulus more easily or quickly after we've encountered similar stimuli. Understanding Psychology: from Inquiry to Understanding, Third Edition Lilienfeld | Lynn | Namy | Woolf LO 7.3 Differentiate the subtypes of long-term memory. Fill in the blanks: K___ Remember "Queen" from the word list? If you filled in "KING", you demonstrated a priming effect. Understanding Psychology: from Inquiry to Understanding, Third Edition Lilienfeld | Lynn | Namy | Woolf Figure 7.8 The Many Subtypes of Memory. A summary of the subtypes of explicit and implicit memory. Understanding Psychology: from Inquiry to Understanding, Third Edition Lilienfeld | Lynn | Namy | Woolf Three Processes of Memory LO 7.4 Identify methods for connecting new information to existing knowledge. • Encoding is getting information into memory. • Storage is keeping information in memory. • Retrieval is the reactivation or reconstruction of information from memory. Understanding Psychology: from Inquiry to Understanding, Third Edition Lilienfeld | Lynn | Namy | Woolf Figure 7.9 The Three Processes of Memory. The process of remembering is similar in some ways to the process of filing and fetching a library book. Understanding Psychology: from Inquiry to Understanding, Third Edition Lilienfeld | Lynn | Namy | Woolf Encoding LO 7.4 Identify methods for connecting new information to existing knowledge. • To encode material, we must first attend to it. • Most events we experience are never encoded in the first place. • The next-in-line effect and memory for common objects Understanding Psychology: from Inquiry to Understanding, Third Edition Lilienfeld | Lynn | Namy | Woolf Figure 7.10 Penny Array from Nickerson and Adams. Which of these pennies is the real one? Try to guess before pulling one out of your pocket. (Source: Based on Nickerson & Adams, 1979) Understanding Psychology: from Inquiry to Understanding, Third Edition Lilienfeld | Lynn | Namy | Woolf Mnemonics LO 7.4 Identify methods for connecting new information to existing knowledge. • Mnemonics are learning aids that enhance recall. – Please Excuse My Dear Aunt Sally – Every Good Boy Does Fine • While applicable to almost anything, they depend on existing knowledge store. Understanding Psychology: from Inquiry to Understanding, Third Edition Lilienfeld | Lynn | Namy | Woolf Types of Mnemonics LO 7.4 Identify methods for connecting new information to existing knowledge. • Pegword method (uses rhyming) • Method of loci (place imagery) • Keyword method (language learning, reminder words) Understanding Psychology: from Inquiry to Understanding, Third Edition Lilienfeld | Lynn | Namy | Woolf Storage LO 7.5 Identify the role that schemas play in the storage of memories. • How we store our experiences in memory depends on our interpretations and expectations of them. • Schemas are organized knowledge structures or mental models that we've stored in memory. – What happens when you go to a restaurant? Understanding Psychology: from Inquiry to Understanding, Third Edition Lilienfeld | Lynn | Namy | Woolf Storage LO 7.5 Identify the role that schemas play in the storage of memories. • Schemas give us frames of reference and allow us to interpret new situations. • Useful, but tend to oversimplify information • Strong example of why the paradox of memory exists Understanding Psychology: from Inquiry to Understanding, Third Edition Lilienfeld | Lynn | Namy | Woolf Retrieval LO 7.6 Distinguish ways of measuring memory. • Many types of forgetting are failures of retrieval. • Using retrieval cues can help to access information in long-term memory. • Measuring memory makes use of the "3 Rs." Understanding Psychology: from Inquiry to Understanding, Third Edition Lilienfeld | Lynn | Namy | Woolf Measuring Memory LO 7.6 Distinguish ways of measuring memory. • Recall - generating previously remembered information • Recognition - selecting previously remembered information from an array of options • Relearning - "savings"; how much more quickly we reacquire something learned before Understanding Psychology: from Inquiry to Understanding, Third Edition Lilienfeld | Lynn | Namy | Woolf Tip-of-the-Tongue Phenomenon LO 7.6 Distinguish ways of measuring memory. • Retrieval failure where we are sure we know the answer, but can't come up with it • When people believe that something is on the tip of their tongue, they're frequently right. Understanding Psychology: from Inquiry to Understanding, Third Edition Lilienfeld | Lynn | Namy | Woolf Encoding Specificity LO 7.7 Describe how the relation between encoding and retrieval conditions influences remembering. • We are more likely to remember something when the conditions present at the time we encoded it are also present at retrieval. • Two kinds: context-dependent learning and state-dependent learning Understanding Psychology: from Inquiry to Understanding, Third Edition Lilienfeld | Lynn | Namy | Woolf Context-Dependent Learning LO 7.7 Describe how the relation between encoding and retrieval conditions influences remembering. • Superior retrieval when the external context of the original memories matches the retrieval context Understanding Psychology: from Inquiry to Understanding, Third Edition Lilienfeld | Lynn | Namy | Woolf Figure 7.13 Research Shows that the Word Learning of Scuba Divers Depends on Context. If the divers learned words underwater, they recalled them best when underwater again (Godden & Baddely, 1975). Understanding Psychology: from Inquiry to Understanding, Third Edition Lilienfeld | Lynn | Namy | Woolf State-Dependent Learning LO 7.7 Describe how the relation between encoding and retrieval conditions influences remembering. • Superior retrieval of memories when the organism is in the same physiological or psychological state as it was during encoding • Can extend to mood-dependent learning and the retrospective bias Understanding Psychology: from Inquiry to Understanding, Third Edition Lilienfeld | Lynn | Namy | Woolf Biology of Memory LO 7.8 Describe the role of long-term potentiation in memory. • Memories of different types of experiences are stored in different brain regions. • Long-term potentiation is the gradual strengthening of the connections among neurons from repetitive stimulation. Understanding Psychology: from Inquiry to Understanding, Third Edition Lilienfeld | Lynn | Namy | Woolf Biology of Memory LO 7.8 Describe the role of long-term potentiation in memory. • LTP plays a key role in learning; hippocampus plays a key role in forming memories • There is, however, no engram. – Memories are diffusely stored. – "Neurons that fire together, wire together." Understanding Psychology: from Inquiry to Understanding, Third Edition Lilienfeld | Lynn | Namy | Woolf Amnesia LO 7.9 Distinguish different types of amnesia and the relevance of amnesia to the brain's organization of memory. • Most common types are retrograde (loss of past memories) and anterograde (loss of ability to make new memories). • Myths abound, but generalized amnesia is very rare, as is sudden recovery of memory. Understanding Psychology: from Inquiry to Understanding, Third Edition Lilienfeld | Lynn | Namy | Woolf Case Studies of Amnesia LO 7.9 Distinguish different types of amnesia and the relevance of amnesia to the brain's organization of memory. • H. M. – Had radical surgery to treat severe epilepsy – Chunks of temporal lobes, including both hippocampi, were removed. – Experienced mild retrograde and severe anterograde amnesia – Implicit memory was preserved. Understanding Psychology: from Inquiry to Understanding, Third Edition Lilienfeld | Lynn | Namy | Woolf Case Studies of Amnesia LO 7.9 Distinguish different types of amnesia and the relevance of amnesia to the brain's organization of memory. • Clive Wearing – Hippocampi were destroyed by a virus, resulting in complete anterograde amnesia – Still shows priming effects, though. – Bottom line: destroying hippocampus leaves implicit memory intact. Understanding Psychology: from Inquiry to Understanding, Third Edition Lilienfeld | Lynn | Namy | Woolf Emotional Memory LO 7.9 Distinguish different types of amnesia and the relevance of amnesia to the brain's organization of memory. • The amygdala and hippocampus interact to give us emotional memories. • Amygdala helps recall emotions associated with fearful events. • Hippocampus helps us recall the events themselves. Understanding Psychology: from Inquiry to Understanding, Third Edition Lilienfeld | Lynn | Namy | Woolf Biology of Memory Deterioration LO 7.10 Identify the key impairments of Alzheimer's disease. • Memory usually begins to show some declines after 65, but not always. • Alzheimer's disease is the most frequent cause of dementia (50-60% of cases). – Show memory and language losses, consistent with cortical loss Understanding Psychology: from Inquiry to Understanding, Third Edition Lilienfeld | Lynn | Namy | Woolf Figure 7.17 Changes in the Brain of Patients with Alzheimer's Disease. Changes include enlargement of the ventricles and severe loss of the cortex in areas involved in language and memory. (Source: Courtesy of Alzheimer's Disease Research, a program of the American Health Assistance Foundation) Understanding Psychology: from Inquiry to Understanding, Third Edition Lilienfeld | Lynn | Namy | Woolf Alzheimer's Disease (AD) LO 7.10 Identify the key impairments of Alzheimer's disease. • Research shows that those with active lifestyles are less likely to develop AD. • Greater education and intellectual activity are related to lower AD rates. • Use it or lose it! Understanding Psychology: from Inquiry to Understanding, Third Edition Lilienfeld | Lynn | Namy | Woolf Memory Over Time LO 7.11 Identify how children's memory abilities change with age. • Memory changes as we age, but reflects the same basic processes throughout life. • Children's memories increase in sophistication. – Memory span increases with age (until 12). – Increase in conceptual understanding – Develop meta-memory skills Understanding Psychology: from Inquiry to Understanding, Third Edition Lilienfeld | Lynn | Namy | Woolf Infantile Amnesia LO 7.11 Identify how children's memory abilities change with age. • Inability of adults to retrieve accurate memories before 2-3 years old • Hippocampus is only partially developed in infants; lack of sense of self • No evidence for use of hypnotic age regression or other techniques to "beat" this Understanding Psychology: from Inquiry to Understanding, Third Edition Lilienfeld | Lynn | Namy | Woolf False Memories LO 7.12 Identify factors that influence people's susceptibility to false memories and memory errors. • Our memories can be more fallible than any of us could have imagined. • Flashbulb memories are very vivid and able to be recalled in detail much later. • But they change over time, and are often inaccurate when compared to initial memories. Understanding Psychology: from Inquiry to Understanding, Third Edition Lilienfeld | Lynn | Namy | Woolf False Memories LO 7.12 Identify factors that influence people's susceptibility to false memories and memory errors. • Source monitoring confusion is a lack of clarity about the origins of a memory. • Can cause numerous memory illusions, including cryptoamnesia – George Harrison and the Chiffons Understanding Psychology: from Inquiry to Understanding, Third Edition Lilienfeld | Lynn | Namy | Woolf Implanting False Memories LO 7.12 Identify factors that influence people's susceptibility to false memories and memory errors. • Elizabeth Loftus' work on suggestive memory techniques • Smashed vs. hit cars, misleading questions and the misinformation effect • "Lost in the mall" study and recalling events that never happened Understanding Psychology: from Inquiry to Understanding, Third Edition Lilienfeld | Lynn | Namy | Woolf Implanting False Memories LO 7.12 Identify factors that influence people's susceptibility to false memories and memory errors. • Event plausibility and recency can both impact strength of false memories. • Existence proofs show that it is possible to create memories that are implausible or impossible. – Hot air balloon ride – Bugs Bunny at Disney World Understanding Psychology: from Inquiry to Understanding, Third Edition Lilienfeld | Lynn | Namy | Woolf From the Lab to the Real World LO 7.13 Describe some of the real-world implications of false memories and memory errors. • Weak correlation between eyewitness confidence in their testimony and their accuracy • Less accurate when: – Observing others of different race – Witness has talked to other witnesses – The observed situation is stressful (e.g., threatening, weapon involved) Understanding Psychology: from Inquiry to Understanding, Third Edition Lilienfeld | Lynn | Namy | Woolf Suggestibility & Child Testimony LO 7.13 Describe some of the real-world implications of false memories and memory errors. • Children are highly vulnerable to suggestions to recall events that did not happen. • Repeated questions about a topic make it more likely that they will say it happened. • "Sam Stone" and the soiled teddy bear. Understanding Psychology: from Inquiry to Understanding, Third Edition Lilienfeld | Lynn | Namy | Woolf False Memory Controversy LO 7.13 Describe some of the real-world implications of false memories and memory errors. • Repressing and then later recovering memories of abuse with memory recovery therapists • Researchers find no evidence to support these claims and say it is due to suggestive techniques. Understanding Psychology: from Inquiry to Understanding, Third Edition Lilienfeld | Lynn | Namy | Woolf Learning Tips LO 7.13 Describe some of the real-world implications of false memories and memory errors. MEMORY CONCEPT POINTER 1) Distributed vs massed study Spread your study time out. 2) Testing effect Frequently test yourself on the material you read. 3) Elaborative rehearsal Connect new knowledge with existing knowledge instead of memorizing. 4) Levels of processing Work to process ideas deeply and meaningfully. 5) Mnemonic devices The more cues you can connect from your knowledge to new material, the better. Understanding Psychology: from Inquiry to Understanding, Third Edition Lilienfeld | Lynn | Namy | Woolf