Download Scientists of the Scientific Revolution

The “Scientific Revolution”
. Before the Scientific Revolution
• Scientists seek to understand HOW
things happen
– intent is to use science to “prove” God
exists
– earliest Scientists are usually priests/monks
– earliest Scientists are astronomers
• easy access
• spiritually significant
Authority in Medieval Thought
Medieval students learnt
1. Classical Ideas and
2. the Bible
•
•
Instead of seeking new
knowledge through
experiments,
Scholars argued about
how to interpret these
Ancient Authorities
Authority – Achievements of the Ancients
• The Medieval World
admired the Ancient
Greeks and Romans
• Vast ruins demonstrated
their superior greatness
• Medieval Education
focussed on recovering
their lost knowledge
Authority – Revelation from God
The Bible was considered
the Word of God – and so
beyond error
Medieval Worldview Limits Science
Medieval World:
• “Science” had to operate
within the limits imposed by
the Church
• Anatomy: Christian beliefs
about resurrection forbade
dissection of corpses
• Burke and Hare body
snatching (1827-8)
Age of Earth: 6000 Years
Calculation Based on the Bible
• James Ussher’s Annals of
the World (1658)
• Dates creation to 4004 BC
• Began the night preceding
21 September 4004 BC
•
James Ussher (15811656): Anglican
Archbishop of
Armagh
•
Gregorian calendar;
= 23 October 4004
BC (Julian calendar)
Astrology: Before Astronomy
• Astrology - belief in the physical influence of planetary rays on earth is one of the most important historical contexts in which astronomy
developed.
• Astrology served as a motivation as well as a means of gainful
employment for astronomers.
• The Babylonians meticulously compiled tablets of the position of
Venus, as it was believed to signify omens for weather, war, famine,
diseases, rulers and kingdoms.
• Ptolemy composed the Tetrabiblos, believing that astrology could be
placed on a rational footing, despite being a conjectural art like
medicine.
• In practice, belief in astrology meant that horoscopes were cast for
new-born children, prospective spouses and political enemies, public
buildings were opened and marriage and other ceremonies conducted
on auspicious days.
• Numerous records of astrological practice can be found from the
Roman times.
History of Astrology
• Originated by Babylonians about 1000 BC
(mundane astrology, i.e. applies to the
world)
• Greeks developed natal (birth) astrology
(codified by Ptolemy in Tetrabiblos, 2nd
century AD)
Argues that a person's character and destiny can be
understood from the positions of the Sun, Moon, and
planets at the moment of his or her birth.
Horoscope
• Natal chart uses
astronomical information
and date and location of
birth
• Planets, Moon, & Sun in
signs of zodiac
• Interpretation step:
positions of celestial bodies
are used to predict a
person’s character and
destiny
Medieval Thought
• Based upon the
works of the
ancient Greeks
and Romans,
astrology, alchemy,
and magic
• This is an example
of how they
believed astrology
affected the body.
Astrology…
a persistent
superstition
It’s all nonsense, of course. The
motions of the planets are prescribed
by natural laws of motion and gravity.
How can their motion predict the
future?
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Does it work?
• No evidence that it
does
• Lots of evidence that
it doesn’t
Astrology — conclusion
• No predictive power
• No scientific basis
• Broad psychological appeal
– Cheap, easy, and entertaining
– May help some people (as do many forms of
empathetic counseling)
– Useless or damaging in other cases
Astronomy
In the Beginning…
• First recorded astronomy traces back to
modern day Congo.
• A bone (known as the Ishango bone)
appeared to be a lunar calendar.
• They used the orientation of the “horns” of
the crescent moon to predict the weather.
• This worked because the rainy season is
through the middle of the year, so that the
moon could tell the time of year for them.
Prehistoric Astronomy
• Introduction
– People of antiquity most likely began
studying the heavens many thousands of
years ago.
– Early astronomical observations certainly
revealed the obvious:
• Rising of the Sun in the eastern sky and its
setting in the west
• Changing appearance of the Moon
• Eclipses
• Planets as a distinct class of objects different
from the stars
History of Astronomy
20
Prehistoric Astronomy
• Introduction (continued)
– Many astronomical phenomena are cyclic
on a day-to-day and year-to-year basis and
consequently gave prehistoric people:
• Methods for time keeping
• Ability to predict and plan future events
• Incentive to build monumental structures such
as Stonehenge
– Modern civilization no longer relies on
direct astronomical observations for time
keeping and planning.
History of–
Astronomy
Studying the night sky provides link to past. 21
Prehistoric Astronomy
• The Celestial Sphere
– Vast distances to stars prevents us from
sensing their true 3-D arrangement
– Naked eye observations treat all stars at the
same distance, on a giant celestial sphere
with the Earth at its center
• Models and Science
– The celestial sphere is a model, which does
not necessarily match physical reality
– Models provide a means to enhance our
understanding of nature
History of Astronomy
22
Prehistoric Astronomy
• Constellations
– Constellations are fixed arrangements of
stars that resemble animals, objects, and
mythological figures
– Stars in a constellation are not physically
related
– Positions of stars change very slowly;
constellations will look the same for
thousands of years
– Origin of the ancient constellations is
unknown although they probably served as
mnemonic devices for tracking the seasons
and navigation
History of Astronomy
23
Prehistoric Astronomy
• Motion of the Sun and the Stars
– Daily or Diurnal Motion
• Sun, Moon, planets, and stars rise in the east
and set in the west
• Daily motion can be explained by the rotation of
the celestial sphere about the north and south
celestial poles located directly above the
Earth’s north and south poles
• The celestial poles can act as navigation aides
and astronomical reference points
• The celestial equator, which lies directly
above the Earth’s equator, provides another
astronomical reference marker
History of Astronomy
24
Prehistoric Astronomy
• Motion of the Sun and the Stars (continued)
– Annual Motion
• For a given time (say 10:00 PM), as the months proceed,
constellations do not appear in the same part of the sky
• A given star rises 3 minutes 56 seconds earlier each night
• This annual motion is caused by the Earth’s motion
around the Sun, the result of projection
• The ancients used the periodic annual motion to mark the
seasons
– The Ecliptic
• The path of the Sun through the stars on the celestial
sphere is called the ecliptic
• The ecliptic is a projection of the Earth’s orbit onto the
celestial sphere and is tipped relative to the celestial
equator
History of Astronomy
25
Prehistoric Astronomy
• The Seasons
– The Earth is closest to the Sun in January, which is
winter in the northern hemisphere
– Therefore, the seasons cannot be caused by Sun’s
proximity to the Earth
– The Earth’s rotation axis is tilted 23.5º from a line
perpendicular to the Earth’s orbital plane
– The rotation axis of the Earth maintains nearly
exactly the same tilt and direction from year to year
– The northern and southern hemispheres alternate
receiving (on a yearly cycle) the majority of direct
light from the Sun
– This leads to the seasons
History of Astronomy
26
Prehistoric Astronomy
• The Seasons (continued)
– The Ecliptic’s Tilt
• The tilt of the Earth’s rotation axis causes the
ecliptic not to be aligned with the celestial
equator
• Sun is above celestial equator in June when the
Northern Hemisphere is tipped toward the Sun,
and is below the equator in December when
tipped away
• Tilting explains seasonal altitude of Sun at
noon, highest in summer and lowest in winter
History of Astronomy
27
Prehistoric Astronomy
• The Seasons (continued)
– Solstices and Equinoxes
• The solstices (about June 21 and December 21)
are when the Sun rises at the most extreme north
and south points
• The equinoxes (equal day and night and about
March 21 and September 23) are when the Sun
rises directly east
• Ancients marked position of Sun rising and
setting to determine the seasons (e.g.,
Stonehenge)
History of Astronomy
28
Prehistoric Astronomy
• Planets and the Zodiac
– The planets (Greek for “wanderers”) do not follow the same
cyclic behavior of the stars
– The planets move relative to the stars in a very narrow band
centered about the ecliptic and called the zodiac
– Motion and location of the planets in the sky is a combination of
all the planets’ orbits being nearly in the same plane and their
relative speeds about the Sun
– Apparent motion of planets is usually from west to east relative
to the stars, although on a daily basis, the planets always rise
in the east
– Occasionally, a planet will move from east to west relative to
the stars; this is called retrograde motion
– Explaining retrograde motion was one of the main reasons
astronomers ultimately rejected the idea of the Earth being
History
of Astronomy
located
at the center of the solar system
29
Prehistoric Astronomy
• The Moon
– Rises in the east and sets in the west
– Like the planets and Sun, the Moon moves from
west to east relative to the stars (roughly the width
of the Moon in one hour)
– During a period of about 30 days, the Moon goes
through a complete set of phases: new, waxing
crescent, first quarter, waxing gibbous, full, waning
gibbous, third quarter, waning crescent
– The phase cycle is the origin of the month (derived
from the word moon) as a time period
– The phase of the Moon are caused by the relative
positions of the Sun, Earth, and Moon
– The Moon rises roughly 50 minutes later each day
History of Astronomy
30
Prehistoric Astronomy
• Eclipses
– An eclipse occurs when the Sun, Earth, and Moon
are directly in line with each other
– A solar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes
between the Sun and Earth, with the Moon casting
its shadow on the Earth causing a midday sky to
become dark as night for a few minutes
– A lunar eclipse occurs when the Earth passes
between the Sun and Moon, with the Earth casting
its shadow on the Moon giving it to become dull
red color or disappear for over one hour
– Eclipses do not occur every 30 days since the
Moon’s orbit is tipped relative to the Earth’s orbit
– The tipped orbit allows the shadow the Earth
(Moon) to miss the Moon (Earth)
History of Astronomy
31
Prehistoric Astronomy
• In summary, basis of prehistoric
astronomy:
– Rising and setting of Sun, Moon, and stars
– Constellations
– Annual motion of Sun
– Motion of planets through zodiac
– Phases of the Moon
– Eclipses
History of Astronomy
32
History of Astronomy
The knowledge of the Ancients
Passage of astronomical knowledge
Ancient
Babylon
Ancient
Egypt
Ancient Roman
Empire
Ancient
Greece
Greek Astronomy
• About 624 BC to 547 BC
• One of the earliest
Greek philosophers.
• His areas of interest
included geometry and
astronomy.
• There are no books or
writings that have
survived from Thales.
Thales and Pythagoras
• Thales: The first of the Greek
philosophers, c. 629-555
B.C.
• He thought the planets,
stars, sun, moon, and earth
were all composed of
different forms of water.
• He appears to be the first to
assert that celestial bodies
were not gods, but were
made of familiar substance.
In those mystical times, this
was a radical departure.
• Pythagoras of Samos (c.
580-500 B.C.): Showed that
nature could be described
by mathematics.
• Described the musical scale
in terms of number ratios
and thought that the
"spheres that carry the
planets" must be arranged in
ratios that would be
musically harmonious.
(Hence the phrase "music of
the spheres".)
Greek Astronomy
• About 569 BC to 475 BC
• One of the greatest
mathematicians of all time.
• Founded secret society
based on his mathematical
discoveries and their
religious implications.
• Since the society was
extremely secretive, very
little is known about his life
or personal works.
Early Ideas of the Heavens
• The Shape of the Earth
– Pythagoras taught as early as 500 B.C. that
the Earth was round, based on the belief that
the sphere is the perfect shape used by the
gods
– By 300 B.C., Aristotle presented naked-eye
observations for the Earth’s spherical shape:
• Shape of Earth’s shadow on the Moon during an
eclipse
• A traveler moving south will see stars previously
hidden by the southern horizon
History of Astronomy
39
Greek Astronomy
• 427 BC to 347 BC
• Well known for political and
social philosophy but he
also made contributions to
astronomy.
• He was most noted for his
belief in the perfect and
unchanging nature of the
heavens.
• Plato was the head of the
School of Athens & was
Aristotle’s teacher.
Greek Astronomy
• 384 BC to 322 BC
• Founded his own school
called the Lyceum in
Athens
• Made contributions to all
areas of philosophy but
math was his weakness
• He did not believe that
empirical evidence was
necessary to prove ideas.
Greek Astronomy
• Aristotle is one the first to
attempt to create a
scientific model of the
universe.
• This model has now
become known as the
“Geocentric Model” which
places the “imperfect” Earth
at the center and all of the
“perfect” celestial objects
go around us in perfect
circular motion
Aristotle 384-322 BC
• Aristotle was a pupil in Plato's Academy,
• Became the tutor of Alexander the Great (when your
father is the most powerful king in the world, you can get
the best).
• Although Greek scientists generally wrote about their
ideas, Aristotle was particularly influential because he
wrote extensive summaries.
• His writings were sort of an opinionated encyclopedia of
Greek physics and astronomy.
• However, he was a truly great biological scientist, and his
writings on that area contained much fundamental
science.
Aristotle’s Universe
Motion: Rest is natural.
Heaven & Earth: The heavens are
different stuff from Earth –
light, airy, and perfect
Matter: Earth, Air, Fire, Water
Method: Deduction (proceed
from a few basic premises, use
logic to find the truth)
Aristotle
• By Aristotle's time, Empedocles' view that there are four
basic elements - earth, air, fire and water - had been
generally accepted.
• Aristotle, however, in addition to this, postulated a fifth
element called aether, which he believed to be the main
constituent of the celestial bodies.
• This divine element, he believed, is uncompounded,
ungenerated, eternal, unalterable, and neither heavy nor
light.
• It can be found in its purest form in the celestial regions,
but becomes adulterated in the area below the moon. (De
Caelo, Book I, chapter 2)
• Aristotle's view of the universe was hierarchical, and he
made a sharp distinction between the sublunar world of
change, and the eternal and immutable heavens.
Aristotle
• Using only philosophical speculation (he did no scientific
observations), Aristotle believed that the universe is
spherical, finite, and centered around the Earth.
• Aristotle, like many others of his time, believed that the
circle was the "perfect" shape, so the universe must be
spherical, and all the orbits in it must also be circular.
• He also believed that celestial bodies were composed of
ether (in addition to the four other basic elements believed
to exist at that time, earth, air, fire, water).
• Aristotle's ideas were adopted by the Church and were not
tested for over a thousand years, until Galileo's
experiments demonstrated errors in Aristotle's writings
Aristotle and Thomas Aquinas
• Aristotle's hierarchical model of the universe had a
profound influence on medieval scholars, who
modified it to correspond with Christian theology.
• Saint Thomas Aquinas, for example, re-interpreted
the prime movers as angels.
• Backed up by religious authority, Aristotle's model
lasted for centuries.
• Unfortunately, this had the effect of restraining the
progress of science, as few people dared to
challenge the authority of the church.
• Nevertheless, we can say of Aristotle that he made a
contribution to astronomy simply by starting to ask
certain questions about the universe, thereby
stimulating other minds to do the same.
angels
Greek Astronomy
• About 325 BC to 265 BC
• Great mathematician but so
little is known about him
that people question
whether he was an actual
person or a group of
mathematicians.
Greek Astronomy
• The book “Elements” is
possible the most
famous and long
lasting math text books
in history.
Greek Astronomy
• About 310 BC to 230 BC
• We have no writings that
have survived but
Aristarchus is referred to in
the writings of other
philosophers
Greek Astronomy
• Most noted for proposing the idea of a heliocentric
universe with the earth as one of the planets
moving around the Sun.
• Aristarchus is the first to attempt to measure the
relative distance between the Earth-Moon and the
Earth-Sun without the aid of trigonometry.
• Actual angle = 89° 50” not 87°
Aristarchus: Aristarchus of
Sámos (310?BC-250?BC)
• was an ancient Greek astronomer who was the first person to
propose a heliocentric model of the Solar System.
• Aristarchus realized that the Earth rotates on its axis and revolves
around the Sun.
• He estimated how far the Sun and the moon are from the Earth and
how big the Moon and the Sun are.
• Archimedes and Plutarch wrote of Aristarchus' works. He also
calculated a relatively precise value for the length of the solar year.
• Aristarchus invented a bowl-shaped sundial whose pointer cast
shadows in the middle of the bowl.
• A lunar crater was named for Aristarchus (pictured above); it is
located on the NW edge of the Oceanus Procellarum.
• This huge, circular crater is 25 miles (40 km) in diameter and 2.2
miles (3.6 km) deep (from rim to floor).
Aristarchus
• Aristarchus figured out how to measure the distances to and sizes
of the Sun and the Moon. Because he deduced that the Sun was so
much bigger than the moon, he concluded that the Earth must
therefore revolve around the Sun.
• Aristarchus' measurement was probably off because first, it is hard
to determine the exact centers of the Sun and the Moon and
second, it is hard to know exactly when the Moon is half full.
• On the other hand, his estimate showed that the Sun is much
further away from us than the Moon is.
• Aristarchus also figured out how to measure the size of the Moon.
• During a lunar eclipse, he measured the duration of time between
the moment when the edge of the Moon first entered the umbra and
the moment when the Moon was first totally obscured. He also
measured the duration of totality.
• Because he found the two times to be the same, he concluded that
the width of the Earth's shadow at the distance where the Moon
crosses it must be twice the diameter of the Moon.
Early Ideas of the Heavens
• The Size of the Earth
– Eratosthenes (276-195 B.C.) made the first
measurement of the Earth’s size
– He obtained a value of 25,000 miles for the
circumference, a value very close to today’s value
– His method entailed measuring the shadow length of
a stick set vertically in the ground in the town of
Alexandria on the summer solstice at noon,
converting the shadow length to an angle of solar
light incidence, and using the distance to Syene, a
town where no shadow is cast at noon on the
summer solstice
History of Astronomy
58
Greek Astronomy
• 276 BC to 194 BC
• Librarian at the Great Library of
Alexandria in Egypt.
• Developed a calendar with a
leap year.
• Measured the circumference of
the Earth in 325 BC !!
• Achieved an accuracy of about
90% of the actual number.
Greek Astronomy
• 190 BC to 120 BC
• Hipparchus is consider the first great astronomer
and scientist
• Hipparchus is one of the first of the ancient
philosophers to realize that ideas must be proven
with empirical evidence.
• He realized that more data meant more certainty in
the idea or model
Greek Astronomy
• Created highly accurate star atlases in an attempt
to measure the length of the year more accurately.
• He measured the length of the year to within 6.5
minutes of the actual time.
• He discovered precession by examining ancient
star position data (mostly Mesopotamian) and
comparing them to his own measurements.
Greek Astronomy
• Based on measurements during an eclipse, he is
able to place a range on the distance to the moon.
• He estimated it to be between 59 and 67 Earth
diameters. The actual number is 60.
• He marks the first truly scientific astronomical mind
and his influence is still felt today.
Hipparchus 194 – 120 BC
• The first great observational astronomer compiled a
catalog of positions and brightness of 1080 stars as
well as the sun, moon, and planets that remained unparalled until the late 1500s.
• He discovered the effect of precession by comparing
to older star charts.
• With his data on planet positions, he realized that
simple motion around a sphere was completely
inadequate to explain the loopy motion of the
planets among the stars and invented the "epicycle",
a smaller sphere centered on the main sphere, on
which the planet moved so that it was periodically
carried backwards with respect to its usual direction.
Aristotle and Ptolemy
• Aristotle
– dominates how
world is thought to
work
• world at rest,
motion caused by
angels
• Ptolemy
– astronomy based
on Aristotle
Greek Astronomy
• About 85 AD to 165 AD
• Ptolemy is the most influential
astronomer in his day and his
models of the universe will
prevail for the next 1400 years
• He is a great admirer of
Hipparchus and his rigorous
method of verifying ideas with
empirical data.
• Ptolemy is also accused of
stealing ideas without crediting
his source.
•
Greek
Astronomy
Ptolemy is a great proponent of the
geocentric model.
• He saw that there were problems
with Aristotle’s simplistic idea of a
geocentric model.
• Ptolemy employed an old idea of
epicycles to explain help explain the
discrepancies in the evidence for
geocentrism.
• Although he was able to make more
accurate predictions than previous
astronomers, his model still failed to
be completely accurate.
Aristotelian/Ptolemaic Cosmos
• Round earth
• Earth = Center of
universe as then
understood
• Heavens supposed
to be perfect, free
of any defects
• Circular orbits
reflect perfection of
heavens.
Ptolemy
– astronomy with
perfect circles
for planetary
motion
• cycles and
epicycles
– crystalline
spheres fix each
planet’s
movement
– earth at center &
sun orbits earth
Ptolemy’s Geocentric System
HEAVEN
HELL
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Ptolemaic Universe
• Earth at center of everything
• 10 Concentric circles
• First 8 spheres contained the sun, moon, stars and the 5
known planets (out to Jupiter)—
• 9th gave motion to the first 8 and the tenth gave motion
to them all.
• Beyond the 10th sphere was the Empyrean Heaven—
the location of God and all the saved souls.
• Earth was imperfect and ever changing, while the
spheres were made of crystalline, transparent, perfect
and incorruptible substance.
• The heavenly bodies were pure orbs of light
• Universe was fixed and finite.
Geo-centric Theory vs.
Helio-Centric Theory
• Geo-centric: Earth is at the center of the
universe and the sun and other celestial
objects orbit around it
• Created by Aristotle
and Ptolemy
• Theory needed complicated
math to prove and explain
exceptions
• Popular with Christian
theologians
• Theorized that perfection
was in the heavens & earth
was the place of decay
Ptolemy’s Universe
Geo-Centric Explanation :
Ptolemy
• Ptolemy's astronomy was also connected to the classical
philosophy of Plato and Aristotle, who had both theorized
that perfection existed in the heavens while the earth was the
locale of degradation and decay to which all natural things
are subject.
• (This theory was also popular with Christian theologians.)
• As time went on, however, and more astronomical data were
collected, Ptolemy's system was increasingly hard pressed to
explain the erratic movements of planets and moons.
• In 1543 Nicolas Copernicus (1473-1543) suggested
replacing the earth with the sun as the center of the
universe; the math was instantly much easier and the
predictions more accurate.
Ancient Rome
The Romans most important contribution
to the field of astronomy is the
enforcement of a systematic calendar
that would account for fact that the year
is about ¼ of a day more 365 days. The
astronomers of Julius Caesar
convinced him to create the
Julian Calendar which adds
one day to the calendar every
4 years to account for the time
we had skipped. This is
known as a “leap year”.
Universities
• Growth of European universities influenced by Islamic scholarship
• Blending of European, Islamic cultures led to translation of
Aristotle, other Greek scholars, from Arabic into Latin
• European scholars exposed to new ideas
• Universities taught mainly religious courses first, but later
broadened scope to include medicine, law
Thomas Aquinas
• One of most influential
medieval scholars, Thomas
Aquinas
• Keenly interested in works of
ancient philosophers,
especially Aristotle
• He tried to use Aristotle’s
methods of logic to prove
existence of God
Teachings
• Aquinas’ use of intellect and
logic to bring together
opposing ideas became known
as Scholasticism
• Teachings helped expand
former ways of thinking,
understanding
• New methods helped
Europeans place themselves in
wider world
Scholasticism
• Theological scholars are influenced by Aristotle’s
writings, transcribed and commented upon by
Arabic scholars
•Scholars reconcile Aristotle’s rationalistic approach
to knowledge with the Christian
reliance on faith
• Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274) writes Summa
Theolgica, a work which asks and answers 631
questions
Scholasticism continued
•Aristotle’s logical explanation of the
Unmoved Mover helps Aquinas prove
God’s existence
•Aquinas elevates the use of reason
to discover God’s world, yet still relies
on revelation to fathom God’s
mysteries
•Aquinas’s theology exhibits a
hierarchical view of the world with
man being the closest of earthly
creatures to God
Middle Ages: Thomas Aquinas
• Thomas Aquinas, a prominent 13th century
theologian and philosopher blended the
Aristotelian and Ptolemaic systems into
Christianity -- an earth-centered universe
meshed well with the concept of man as
God's ultimate creation.
• Once astronomy had been merged into
the doctrines of the Church in this way,
astronomical progress became even more
difficult because it affected larger
questions.
Scriptures are Replete with Astronomical
References ---Literal and Metaphorical
Meanings
Some are apparent
•Gen 1: 16
Creation
•Gen 37: 9
Connection of stars with
tribes of Israel
•Job 9: 7, 9
Creator of the universe
•Job 38: 31-33 Creator of universe; laws of
physics
•Psa 8: 3
Wondrous works
•Psa 19
Gospel in the stars
•Psa 147: 4
Names the stars
•Amos 5: 8
Creator of the universe
Scriptures are Replete with Astronomical
References---Literal and Metaphorical Meanings
Some are not so apparent
•Num 2
Encampment of tribes by their
standardswith their ensigns
•Psa 74: 13,14
Breakest the heads of dragons
(HSN 8577);of leviathan (HSN 3882): serpent;
constellation of the dragon (Draco)
•Acts 17: 28
Paul’s disicourse on Aerogapus
Phaenomena work of Aratus, Cilician poet
•Acts 27: 20
Celestial navigation
•Acts 28: 11
Alexandrian ship under Castor
and Pollux
Geocentric Evidence
• Everything appears to revolve around the
Earth each day (diurnal motion).
• There is no observable parallax of the
stars, planets, Moon, or Sun.
• The motions of the stars and heavens are
perfect circles.
• The heavens were unchanging but the
Earth was not.
Problems With the Geocentric
Model
• The planets appear to change brightness,
implying a change of distance.
• The planets undergo retrograde motion (they
move backwards compared to the direction the
Sun moves).
• The Sun, Moon, and Planets do not move at the
same speed all the time.
• Mercury and Venus are never seen at opposition
(they always appear close to the Sun.
So Which is Right?
• The ancients favored the geocentric model
because it seemed impossible to believe
that the Earth was moving.
• During ancients times, the mathematical
and scientific tools were not available to
answer the question without dispute.
Anatomy and Medicine
History of Medicine
• Prehistoric:
– Used medicinal herbs for simple cures
– Set broken limbs
– Based on superstition - medicine men and spirits
• Ancient Egypt (3000 - 1400 BC)
– Large settled population led to public health problems
– Greater knowledge of the human body by removal of heart,
lungs, and liver for mummification
– Written language recorded treatments and started
accumulating knowledge in papyrus
– Religious beliefs: prayers, spells, and charms
The Greeks
Source 1: A Greek painted vase from 400 BC shows a patient
visiting a doctor.
What does this source tell you about treatment at the time?
Source 1: suggested answer
• This vase comes from about 400 BC when the
Hippocratic doctors were practising
• We see the doctor in the centre about to bleed a patient
– treatments reflecting the use of the Four Humour
Theory.
• It shows natural methods of treatment
• The idea was to keep the humours in balance so the
patient would be well
• The patient would be bled and the bowl would be used
to catch the blood
• The source is limited as we don’t know details of the
illness or outcome of the treatment.
History of Medicine
• Ancient Greek Medicine (400 -200 BC)
– Traveled the Mediterranean learned from other
cultures like Egyptians
– Rich society that had a few people with “spare time”
to think and study, devoting life to science or religion
– Looked for natural explanations, not just blamed gods
and spirits
– Practiced clinical observation - observed the whole
patient, record symptoms,
– Asklepions - healing centers and temple for Asklepios
who would visit patients and heal them with his staff
that is entwined with a snake
Qui ckTime™ and a
TIFF (LZW) decompressor
are needed to see thi s pi cture.
Qu ic kTi me™ a nd a
TIFF (LZW)d ec omp res so r
are n ee de d to s ee th is pi ctu re .
•
•
•
•
•
Greek Medicine
Greek gods and goddesses of healing,
• Asclepius
• Apollo
• Hygieia
Physicians had to know the
proper prayers and charms
wherewith to approach "Apollo
the Healer," who would tell
them what kind of herb poultice
to put on a wound.
Many “doctors” practiced by trial
and error. If they made a lot of
errors, people quit going to them.
Socles, a physician, treated a
hunchback by piling three solid
stones, each four feet square, on
his spine. He was crushed and
died, but he became straighter.
Source 3: Carved on a stone tablet found at an Asklepion. What does
this source tell us about Greek attitudes to healing?
Aegestratos was unable
to sleep because of
headaches. As soon as
he came to the temple he
fell asleep and had a
dream. He thought that
the god cured him of his
headache and, making
him stand up, taught him
wrestling. The next day
he departed cured, and
after a short time he
competed at the Nemean
games, and was victor in
the wrestling.
•
•
•
•
•
•
What to ask yourself
What do you recognise in the
text?
What is going on in the
source?
What is the message of the
source?
What does it tell me about
medicine at the time?
Is it a typical source for this
time? Where does it come
from? Can we trust it?
What else do I know that helps
me to make sense of the
evidence?
Source 3: suggested answer
• It shows a belief in the power of
religion/supernatural beliefs especially in Asklepios
the god of healing
• Strength in the belief in that the patient went on to
win feats of strength
• Attitude to physical health – important to be well and
strong
• The message for people is you too can be healed at
an Asklepion
• Typical of the time – asklepions all over Greece and
would have carvings on them
• We can trust their belief in the treatment there and
their opinions but not that the treatment worked
• Also know that there was a dual approach to
medicine in that people might consider natural as
well as supernatural treatments.
History of Medicine - Greek
• Hippocrates - Lays groundwork for medical practice
– Four Humours - Illness was caused by natural
factors inside the patient. Yellow bile, black bile,
blood, and phlegm
– Clinical Observation - observed the whole patient,
record symptoms, diagnose illness, then treat it.
– Code of Behaviour - Doctors had to treat their
patients with respect, not take advantage of them.
To this day, doctors take the "Hippocratic Oath" to
behave properly.
QuickTime™ and a
TIF F (LZ W) decompressor
are needed to see this picture.
Hippocrates (460 to 379 BC)
• Early Greek physician
• Believed that illness
had a physical cause
• Rejected
superstitions
• Based medical
treatments on
observations
Source 2: From Hippocratic writings
Vomiting should be encouraged during the
winter months as this is the time when phlegm
dominates and diseases are to be found in the
head and chest. The emetic should consist of
ground hyssop in six pints of water drunk after
adding vinegar and salt. During the summer
enemas should be used as this is the hot
season when the body is more bilious.
Use this source and your knowledge to explain what
theory was being used and how the treatment would
help the patient
Source 2: Suggested answers
• Theory of the four humours used
• This shows the link between the humour and a particular
season
• Suggests phlegm more out of balance in the winter when
they observed more would be produced.
• Treatment is based on an emetic to make the patient
sick and therefore balance the humour again
• Links bilious nature of yellow bile to the hot summer
months and advises that the way to cure this would be
enemas in the summer when this humour would be out
of balance.
• Shows that Hippocratic doctors were using symptoms
and observation but misunderstanding symptoms for the
cause of the illness.
Early Greeks
Greeks explained illness in terms of the
4 body humors (fluids).
• Thought the humors were governed
by air, water, fire, and earth
• Healthy person had all four humors in
balance.
The Four Humors
Based on a diagram from Isidore of
Seville, Liber de responsione mundi
(Augsburg, 1472). Original in the
Huntington Library.
One of the 4 bodily humors:
•Yellow Bile
•Black Bile
•Phlegm
•Blood
Four humors matched the four seasons:
•Autumn: black bile
•Spring: blood
•Winter: phlegm
•Summer: yellow bile.
Greek & Roman Development
of the Four Humors
• The idea of the four temperaments, or humors, was established
around 400 BCE by Hippocrates at the medical school on the
island of Kos.
• Greek medicine was based on these four humors, a system
which was also used to describe the human temperament,
psyche and psychology.
• This system has found its way into our language and we still use
the words phlegmatic, sanguine and melancholy to describe
someone’s ‘temperament’. We also describe a person as being
‘in their element’ or ‘in good humor’.
• Romans thought that humors were formed in the body, and that
foods had varying potential to produce different humors
• . Hot foods produced yellow bile; cold ones produced phlegm.
Seasons, a person’s age, sleep patterns, geographic living area,
and occupation also had an influence on humors.
• The imbalance of humors was the direct cause of all disease, so
good health required a balance of humors.
Source 4 & 5: conflicting sources.
Read the two sources below and answer: Source 5 shows that
supernatural approaches were used a century after natural
approaches. Does this mean the Theory of the humours had limited
impact on medicine in the ‘ancient World?
Source 4
From a book written by
Hippocrates in the 5th
century BC
Man’s body has
blood, phlegm,
yellow bile an black
bile. These make up
his parts and
through them he
feels illness or
enjoys health.
Source 5
From a carving at the temple of Asklepios at
Epidarus in the 4th century BC
Ambrosia of Athens became blind in
one eye. She had laughed when she
heard of cures for the lame and blind.
But that night she dreamt that
Asklepios was standing beside her
saying he would cure her if she would
dedicate a silver pig as an offering of
thanks. Asklepios seemed to cut into
her diseased eyeball and when she
awoke in the morning she was cured.
Sources 4 &5 suggested answer
• The fact that source 5 (supernatural cure) comes from a
later time than source 4 does not mean the theory had
limited impact
• The sources reflect people still turned to the asklepions
for physical problems even after Greek doctors starting
observation and treatment based on the 4 humours
• The 4 humours co –existed with traditional temple
medicine
• Both supernatural and 4 humour theory were incorrect
and nothing was known about the germ theory till the
1860s
• The impact of the 4 humours remained strong for about
1500 years due to Galen and his approach and
importance in the Roman Empire
• However even in Rome Asklepion medicine continued
(started after epidemic of plague)
•The four humours were literally bodily fluids, but
were associated with personality traits, which is why
we still talk about someone being “good-humoured.”
•Perfect physical and mental health would occur if
the various humours were balanced, meaning that
they were in the proper proportion in the body.
•However, no one was ever thought to be perfectly
balanced.
•Minor imbalances were associated with personality
traits, whereas severe imbalances led to bodily
illnesses and personality disorders.
•An excess of a humour could be treated by
decreasing the amount of that humour in the system,
for example by bleeding, diuretics, laxatives, or
enemas.
The Four Humours in Reniassance and Elizabethan time
By this time the humours had become standardised as follows
Note: "lazy" is sometimes attributed to Phlegmatics [ref The Four
Humours] and sometimes to Melancholics [ref The Four Humors]
Humour
Sanguine
Choleric
Phlegmatic
Melancholic
Body
substance
blood
yellow bile
phlegm
black bile
produced by
liver
spleen
lungs
gall bladder
Element
air
fire
water
earth
Qualities
hot and moist
hot and dry
cold and moist
cold and dry
Complexion
and Body type
Personality
red-cheeked,
corpulent
amorous,
happy,
generous,
optimistic,
irresponsible
red-haired,
thin
violent,
vengeful,
shorttempered,
ambitious
corpulent
Sluggish,
pallid,
cowardly
sallow, thin
Introspective,
sentimental,
gluttonous
Humour
Blood
Phlegm or Pituita
Yellow Bile
Black Bile
Character Type
Element
Sanguine
Air
Phlegmatic
Water
Choleric
Fire
Melancholic
Earth
Planet (or
luminary)
Jupiter
Moon
Mars
Saturn
Astrological
Signs
Gemini, Libra,
Aquarius
Cancer, Scorpio,
Pisces
Aries, Leo, Sagittarius
Taurus, Virgo,
Capricorn
Wind/Direction
South
East
West
North
Hot and Moist
Cold and Moist
Hot and Dry
Cold and Dry
Spring
Winter
Childhood (also
senility)
Summer
Autumn
Adulthood
Old Age
Temperature/Moi
sture
Season
Phase of Life
Adolescence
Appearance
Large-framed, with a
pink or red
complexion
Fleshy and fair
Slim, wiry, red-haired
Slim, fair, not
muscular
Appearance if
out of balance
Fat, with a florid
complexion
Fat and pale
Thin, color rises when
angry
Thin, pale
Emotional, mild,
passive, sensitive,
intuitive
Ambitious, energetic,
direct
Thoughtful,
introspective,
reflective
Optimistic, cheerful,
Character Traits fun-loving, generous,
amorous
Irresponsible,
Lazy, vulnerable,
Violent, hot-tempered,
Character Traits
gluttonous, inebriate, cowardly, excessively
unscrupulous,
if out of balance
lusty
emotional
vengeful
Depressive,
narcissistic, selfloathing
Cornelius Celsus: First Century
AD
• Believed blood caused disease
• So he introduced the policy of Bleeding
people to make them better
• Believed you could get rid of Humours by
causing blisters, making yourself throw up,
or making a poo
• Bloodletting was a way of getting rid
of excess humors.
Claudius Galen (120 to 200)
• Roman
physician,
“team doctor”
for the
gladiators.
• Kept them alive
so they could
fight again.
• Galen (A.D. 131-201)
• • From Pergamon
• • Became physician to Emperor Marcus
Aurelius
• • Prepared medicines made from animal and
vegetables extracts
• • Grew plants for remedies in his own garden
• • Catalogued quantity of each ingredient in
his remedies
Galen’s Teachings
Taught importance of maintaining
balance between the four bodily
fluids, or "humors“
•Blood
•Phlegm
•Black bile, and
•Yellow bile
•Taught that it was the physician’s
job to restore harmony in those
four humors by the use of
•Emetics
•Cathartics
•Purgatives, and
•By bloodletting (pictured here)
Issue of Dissection
• In China, India,
• Young doctors
Greece, and
were not
Rome, human
encouraged to look
dissections were
for themselves
banned for
• This meant that
religious reasons.
Galen had to make
• At medical schools,
do with apes, dogs,
assistants did rare
pigs, and
dissections.
elephants.
Galen: 130 – 201AD
• Roman doctor
• Started career at a
gladiator school where
he studied wounds
• Tried to heal wounds
with pigeon blood
• Was doctor to several
emperors
• His work was the basis
for medicine for 1500
years
• Believed in :
• Humours
• Blood is made in
liver and gets
mixed with invisible
life-giving gas in
the lungs
• Also believed the
blood is consumed
by the body
Early
anatomical
drawing based
on
misinformation.
GALEN:
Dissecting a pig
• Did not dissect humans, but did
extensive work on pigs and
monkeys.
• His mistake was to assume that
humans and animals were identical
internally.
• His writings were taken as “law”
for hundred of years.
• Galen’s View of the
Human Body
GALEN:
• Most of the knowledge of anatomy at the beginning of the
Scientific Revolution came from Galen, an ancient Greek
• Since Roman Law forbade the dissection of humans, Galen
dissected dogs and apes
– However he stressed the importance of human dissection
– Studied the muscles, spinal cord, heart, urinary system,etc.
• He made numerous discoveries including the discovery that
blood flows through veins
• However, he was wrong in thinking that the liver digested food
and processed it into blood
• Came up with the idea of a “pneuma” or air inside the veins, that
was like a human spirit
• believed that disease resulted from an imbalance of the four
humors
• His discoveries stood for one thousand years
The Middle Ages
Source 6 A 12th century text written by a French priest and teacher,
Peter Abelard
The infirmary of your convent must be
equipped with everything necessary for
looking after the sick. Medicine must be
provided, and this is best done if the sister
in charge has some knowledge of
medicine. One of the sisters should know
about blood letting, otherwise it will be
necessary for a man to come in to the
convent for this purpose.
Question: How does this source show that religion supported the four
humour theory?
Suggested answer for source 6
• The Roman Catholic Church set up hospitals and
medical schools
• It supported the Hippocratic ideas and the work of Galen
who promoted them this is because Galen believed in
one god and the Church saw his ideas as fitting in with
theirs
• Nuns and priests provided care in convents and
hospitals – usually ‘hospitality’ but some treatments were
given
• In this case the nun should know how to bleed the
patient to balance his humours
• It is known that monks were regularly bled – up to six or
seven times a year so the Church supported this practice
The Medieval Church and Medicine
The Church (of Rome in Western Europe)
played a key role in medical practice
because:
•Religious men and women could read and
write
•Medical texts were preserved in monastic
communities
•The religious were charged with spiritual
and physical well-being of their charges
The Benedictine Rule
St. Benedict (480-547) – wrote the
Benedictine Rule, which states:
"Before others and above all, special
care must be taken of the ill so they
may be looked after, as Christ . . . The
sick must remember they are being
taken care of for
the honor of God."
Monastic Medicine
•Responsibility of monks
to provide medical
treatment to:
–Fellow monks
–Servants and other
laity
–Guests
•Responsibility of monks
to prepare
remedies
•Responsibility of abbot
to be near the sick
to offer spiritual care
Medicine ca. 1000
School of medicine in Salerno, Italy in
the 7th century
Trotula – (woman!) professor of
medicine;
Passionibus Mulierum Curandorum (The
Diseases of Women), also known as
Trotula Major ; remedies are herbs,
spices, oils and of animal origin
History of Medicine
• Medieval (500 - 1500)
– This was a time of little change in medicine.
– Knowledge of public health was lost after the Roman
Empire fell.
– People forgot about the importance of clean water.
– There was instability and war.
– Learning was lost as libraries and universities
collapsed.
– Communications were poor so it was hard for doctors
to learn or discuss ideas.
– The Roman Catholic Church controlled all learning,
which slowed down progress. As dissections were not
allowed, knowledge of anatomy was poor.
Medical Schools at
Universities
More study of medicine as
universities were
established:
1110 Paris
1158 Bologna
1167 Oxford
1181 Montpellier
Medieval interpretations
Chaucer, Canterbury Tales
14th century
A Doctor too emerged as we proceeded.
• By medieval times,
scientists felt that the No one alive could talk as well as he did
On points of medicine and of surgery
bodily humors gave For, being grounded in astronomy
off vapors which
He watched his patient's favourable star
ascended to the brain And, by his Natural Magic, knew what are
The lucky hours and planetary degrees
and influenced a
For making charms and effigies.
person’s state of mind The cause of every malady you'd got
He knew, and whether dry, cold, moist or hot;
or character.
He knew their seat, their humour and
condition.
He was a perfect practicing physician.
Elizabethan use of
the Four Humors
• Renaissance thinkers viewed a human being as a
microcosm (literally, a "little world") that reflected the
structure of the world as a whole, the macrocosm;
• just as the world was composed of four "elements"
(earth, water, air, fire), so too was the human body
composed of four substances called "humours," with
characteristics corresponding to the four elements.
• "Correspondences" existed everywhere, on many
levels.
• Thus the hierarchical organization of the mental faculties
was also thought of as reflecting the hierarchical order
within the family, the state, and the forces of nature.
• When things were properly ordered, reason ruled the
emotions, just as a king ruled his subjects, the parent
ruled the child, and the sun governed the planets.
Shakespeare’s Use of the Four Humors
Hamlet is not the only play in which Shakespeare exploits his
audience’s understanding of the Four Humors:
• Lady Macbeth’s reference to blood implies Duncan’s sanguine
personality of being kind and joyful. “Yet who would have
thought / the old man to have had so much blood in him” (V.1.4445)
• In Shakespeare's King Lear, the simultaneous disorder in family
relationships and in the state (child ruling parent, subject ruling
king) is reflected in the disorder of Lear's mind (the loss of
reason) as well as in the disorder of nature (the raging storm).
Lear even equates his loss of reason to "a tempest in my mind."
• Antony offers a eulogy to Julius Caesar using the Greek notion of
balanced humors. “His life was gentle, and the elements So mix'd
in him that Nature might stand up And say to all the world, "This
was a man!“ (V.5.74 – 76)
The Four Humors
Humor
Ancient
Disposition
Element
Season
Bodily organ
involved
Qualities
Personality characteristics
Black bile
Melancholic
Earth
Autumn
Spleen
Cold & dry
Thoughtful, creative, seeks perfection,
despondent, irritable, unsatisfied with
self, preoccupied, introspective,
sentimental, gluttonous, depressed
Blood
Sanguine
Air
Spring
Liver
Warm & moist
Light-hearted, courageous, confident,
arrogant, impulsive, dreamy, off-task,
spontaneous, hopeful, amorous,
optimistic, irresponsible, generous,
manic, kind
Phlegm
Phlegmatic
Water
Winter
Brain/lungs
Cold & moist
Calm, observant, rational, kind, shy,
consistent, unemotional, dependable,
resistant to change, lazy, cowardly
Yellow bile
Choleric
Fire
Summer
Gall bladder
Warm & dry
A doer & leader, easily angered, bad
tempered, ambitious, passionate,
energetic, violent, vengeful
A blood letting man
It was believed that the volume
of blood, one of the primary
humours, needed to be kept in
check, either by natural bleeding
or by the human intervention of
"bloodletting."
This was done by the application of
leeches and, far more
commonly, by phlebotomy or
venesection, that is, a small
incision in a vein.
As physicians delegated this
procedure to surgeons and
barbers, who were less
knowledgeable about anatomy,
it became increasingly important
to have "maps" of the veins to
be incised for specific purposes.
Peter the Venerable’s letter
• Postponed bloodletting  catarrh
• Postponed it again
• After 4 months, 2 bloodlettings in 3 weeks,
but:
• Catarrh remains
– Voice is weak
– Chest is heavy
– Lots of phlegm
Peter the Venerable’s letter
• Local physicians:
– Bloodletting has  loss of heat
– “cold and sluggish phlegm is diffused
throughout the veins and vital channels”
– Rec: heating and moistening
foods/medications
Peter the Venerable’s letter
• Peter objects:
– Cold, moist disease ought to be treated with
hot, dry remedies (galenic law of contraries)
– Also worried about omitting his regular
bloodletting
• Local docs reply:
– Throat and trachea should be soothed with
moist things, not irritated with dry things
Disease in the Middle Ages
• Peter has medical knowledge and argues
with his doctors
• Disease: complexion theory
– Galen
• Theory is applied flexibly by physicians
Complexion
• Df: the balance of hot, wet, cold and dry
among the elements of the body
– From Galen who got it from Hippocratic
writings
• Each individual’s complexion is unique
– Varies by sex and age and climate
– Each organ has a complexional quality
• Well-balanced complexion is an
achievement
Medieval doctors still believed in the theory of the Four
Humours. Did they use it in the same way as doctors in the
ancient world?
• Explain how medieval doctors followed ideas of
Galen and Hippocrates but then go on to
describe differences:
• People had blood removed when perfectly
healthy as a way of keeping humours balanced
– did not wait to be ill
• Carried out by barber surgeons – body maps
like the previous image were produced and used
• Used laxatives but linked these ideas of purging
and bleeding with astrology. Guided by planets
which was a new idea. Books like the
vademecum were used.
Medieval Medicine and Astrology
•
Diagnosis was also influenced by astrology. Medical charts informed physicians what not
to do for people born under a certain start sign.
– Aries - Avoid incisions in the head and face and cut no vein in the head.
– Taurus - Avoid incisions in the neck and throat and cut no veins there
– Gemini - Avoid incisions in the shoulders, arms or hands and cut no vein.
– Cancer -Avoid incisions in the breasts, sides, stomach and lungs and cut no vein that
goes to the spleen.
– Leo - Avoid incisions of the nerves, lesions of the sides and bones, and do not cut the
back either by opening and bleeding.
– Virgo - Avoid opening a wound in the belly and in the internal parts
– Libra - Avoid opening wounds in the umbellicus and parts of the belly and do not open
a vein in the back or do cupping.
– Scorpio - Avoid cutting the testicles and anus.
– Sagittarius - Avoid incisions in the thighs and fingers and do not cut blemishes and
growths.
– Capricorn - Avoid cutting the knees or the veins and sinews in these places.
– Aquarius -Avoid cutting the knees or the veins and veins in these places.
– Pisces - Avoid cutting the feet.
AST16. Woodcut from
Gregor Reisch,
Margarita
philosophica, Freiburg,
1503.
AST12. Title page wooodcut from Proclus Sphaera, Paris, 1547.
AST20. Title page woodcut from a German astrological manual from Leipzig, 1512.
History of Medicine
• Bubonic Plague (1348-1350)
– Killed 1/3 of the population of Europe
– At the time, people did not know what caused
it
– In 1894-1898, the plague was found to be
caused by a bacteria that lives in black rats
and is spread to humans by fleas
History of Medicine
• Renaissance (1400 - 1800)
– The invention of the printing press - ideas could be spread
quickly and cheaply.
– The revival of classical learning - scholars went back to the
original Greek and Roman texts. These reminded scientists to
observe nature closely and make theories that explained the
world.
– The Church was criticized for the first time - people
challenged old ideas and established authorities. In the
Reformation the Catholic Church lost its hold over many
countries, as well as universities and education. People became
less willing to accept the Church's rulings about issues such as
dissection.
– Voyages of exploration - people traveled more and had greater
contact with other societies. New ideas and attitudes were
brought into Europe. New drugs were introduced, such as
quinine, which could be used against malaria.
• Belief in magic was
widespread
• While most educated
people professed not to
believe, many still held
charms, like Queen
Elizabeth’s magic ring to
ward off the plague
• Magic was viewed as
being either good (tied to
the church) or bad
– alternative was natural
magic
• astrology
• alchemy.
Magical
Thought
EMB37. Woodcut of witches by Hans Baldung Grien, Strassburg, 1514.
EMB20. Woodcut of two witches from Ulrich Molitor, 1508.
Magic
Alchemy: iron to gold? the elixir of
life? A medieval chemical philosophy
having as its asserted aims the
transmutation of base metals into
gold, the discovery of the panacea,
and the preparation of the elixir of
longevity.
Astrology: the stars affect the
lower nature
Witches: demons in the air
Seeking
• a) Philosopher’s Stone (a stone that is no
stone but contains within it the seeds to
transform cheap metals into gold)
• b) Elixor of Life (cure disease)
• c) Fountain of Youth (extend life)
Alchemy: Before Chemistry
• Developed in ancient • Alchemy then spread
Greece, India, and
between Greece and
China
India by traders.
• Historians believe that • Alchemy aimed to
the Chinese invented
turn cheap metals like
alchemy with the aim
lead into gold.
to find a special kind
• It was spurred by
of gold that you could
greed.
drink and make you
live forever.
Arabic Scientists
• When Feudalism reduced the demand for
science in
Europe, scholars fled to Arabic-Islamic lands
• Mathematics, Astronomy, Health and Medicine,
Optics, and Chemistry flourished there
during
Europe’s Dark Ages
Famous Arabic-Islamic Scientists
• Ibn al-Shatir
• Abu Ibn-Sina (Avicenna)
• Ibn al-Haytham
• Abu Al-Razi
Alchemist Subtypes:
• Four types of alchemist:
a) mystical or religious
b) philosophical
c) mercenary
d) scientific
Chemistry and Alchemy
• Chemistry was not seen as a separate
science, but was an important part of other
industries and crafts
• Islamic scientists developed new
experimental techniques and methods
such as distillation
• Alchemy was important as a science of the
cosmos and the soul
Contributions
• a) lab techniques
• b) medicines
• c) lab tools and supplies
Laboratory Techniques
• a) distillation
b) filtration
c) crystallization
d) coagulation
e) evaporation
f) extraction
Mineral Acids
H2SO4 (aq) Sulfuric Acid
HCl (aq)
Hydrochloric Acid
HNO3 (aq) Nitric Acid
Minerals to make these acids are present
in large quantities, are easily transported,
and properties do not change on shelf
Alchemy to chemistry
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Democritus: first idea of atom
Geber: stereotypical alchemist
Paracelsus: last alchemist/first chemist
Robert Boyle: definition of atom
Georg Stahl: phlogiston theory
Figures of some
Alchemical
Processes in
Arabic Manuscript
http://www.levity.com/alchemy/images/gab16.
jpg
Alchemy
• Alchemists spent
much of their time
heating and mixing
metals in search of
magical combination
that would make gold.
• While they were
experimenting, they
made loads of
interesting
discoveries.
• Arab alchemist Jabir
(721-815) found out how
to boil vinegar to make
a strong acid called
acetic acid.
• He also figured out how
to make ammonia, by
boiling urine.
• Alchemists also knew
how to dry chemicals
until they formed
crystals-distillation.
The Emerald Stone
• Hermes Trismegistus –
Legendary Founder of
Alchemy
Alchemy
• The alchemist, Maria
the Jewess, who lived
in Alexandria in 1AD
invented equipment
used by later
chemists.
• She designed the
boiler to heat
chemicals slowly and
a vessel for distilling.
• However, some alchemists
began to cheat and were
criminals.
• For example, Barbara, the
Former Empress of the Holy
Roman Empire in 1437AD
turned to alchemy. She
learned how to make fake
gold and silver.
• The gold is made by mixing
iron with saffron and with
copper and other chemicals.
• The fake silver included
poisons like mercury and
arsenic.
ALCH 05. The
alchemical
tree, standing
Thinking and Learning
New Ideas
• Religious writers of Middle
Ages spread new ideas
throughout Europe
• New ideas gave rise to new
ways of thinking and
learning
Alchemy
• People in Middle Ages curious
about how world worked
• Began to conduct scientific
experiments in alchemy, early
form of chemistry
Constrictions
Great Secrets
• Experiments constricted by
reliance on authority of
Greek writers
• Alchemists convinced they
• Also by teaching of the
Catholic Church
• Work in alchemy influenced
later growth of science
could find way to turn base
metals into gold, but could not
Paracelsus
Paracelsus (11 November or 17
December 1493 in Einsiedeln,
Switzerland - 24 September 1541)
was an alchemist, physician,
astrologer, and general occultist.
Born Phillip von Hohenheim, he later
took up the name Philippus
Theophrastus Aureolus
Bombastus von Hohenheim, and
still later took the title Paracelsus,
meaning "equal to or greater than
Celsus", a Roman physician from
the first century BC.
“Bier is a really divine
medicine”. Paracelsus (1493 –
1541).
Paracelcus
Paracelsus: Genius with bad press
agent
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•
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•
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Attended Universities of Heidelberg, Freiburg, Ingolstadt,
Cologne, Tübingen, Vienna, Erfurt and Ferrara, left without
degree, drank to excess, and wandered over most of known
world, took part in the Peasants War (1525)
Practiced medicine in Spain, Portugal, England, Denmark,
Poland, Prussia, Hungary, Arabia, Egypt, Turkey, probably
other places as well, frequently aggravating established
practitioners.
Investigated the use of opium, coined the term laudanum for
tincture of opium, an opium extract containing 40-80% ethanol.
Pioneered use of chemicals, elements in medicine (Zn, Hg, Au)
Introduced draining to replace amputation or cauterization
Introduced dose-response concept
Recognized the first industrial disease in miners
Paracelsus: a few weird facts
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“Paracelsus” a 1943 film by Georg Wilhelm Pabst,
essentially a Nazi propaganda film.
Professor Bulwer in 1922 Murnau film 'Nosferatu' is a
follower of Paracelsus
“Paracelsus” (lengthy dramatic poem by Robert
Browning)
Paracelsus is mentioned as an inspiration to Victor
Frankenstein, the main character in Mary Shelley's
Frankenstein.
Paracelsus is one of the people featured on a Chocolate
Frog card in Harry Potter.
A bust of Paracelsus is in the castle at Hogwarts, near
Gryffindor, between the entrance to the Gryffindor
common room and the Owlry, as mentioned in Order of
the Phoenix
The Alchemist
- Jan Van der Straet
•Scholars in the west first learnt about alchemy as they copied and
translated into Latin certain Arabic texts with alchemical content in
about the 12th /13th centuries.
•As the quote from the Harry Potter book states, alchemy was a
branch of natural philosophy whose goal was to find wealth, longevity
and immortality.
•Alchemists thus tried to find a substance called the Philosopher’s
Stone which, when heated and combined with ‘base’ or non-precious
metals, would turn them into gold.
•It was also thought gold could be made into an elixir of immortality.
•Alchemy was based on older Aristotelian principles where it was
thought that elements could be changed or transmuted by impressing
new substances onto them.
•To some extent the alchemists laid the foundations of modern
chemistry, although the science has been increasingly discredited since
the 18th century because of its associations with mystical occult and
irrational practices.
• Alchemy in
the Middle
Ages
• Distillation was described
as increasing the “viture”
of the distillate.
• This was best described
for the universal panacea;
wine. The third distillate
produced “aqua vitae”
(brandy) the tenth
distillate produce “aqua
ardente” (also called
“burning water”).
• Of course any complaint
would be silenced by a
few doses of aqua
ardente. “Grandpas
medicine”, many tonics
and elixirs even into the
20th century contained
large amounts of alcohol.
Alchemists used a wide range of exotic-sounding chemicals
including :
ocinnabar (mercuric sulphide),
ospiritus fumans (stannic chloride),
osaccharum saturni (sugar of Saturn or lead acetate),
osal ammoniac (ammonium chloride),
ooil of vitriol (sulphuric acid),
oaqua regia (nitric acid and hydrochloric acid)
oand aqua fortis (nitric acid).
They tried to keep their work secret and therefore they used
many esoteric practices.
For example, they frequently used a system of symbols to
denote the substances and processes used in their
experiments.
A list of the
symbols used to
denote alchemical
substances and
processes, from a
printed edition of
The Last Will and
Testament of Basil
Valentine (1671), a
typical alchemical
work.
EMB27. Engraving from Ichnographia Emblematica, Augsberg, 1779.
• The mathematics
of alchemy
•A well known medieval alchemist was the
Frenchman Nicholas Flamel (1330-1418); a
tradition beginning in the seventeenth century
claims that he wrote alchemical texts and was
able to prepare the much-coveted
Philosopher’s Stone.
•Thus, the character mentioned in the Harry
Potter extract above was a real live historical
figure who was indeed married to a women
called Perenelle.
•An excellent website on alchemy can be found
at www.alchemywebsite.com/symelem.html
ALCH 06. Engraving
of the famous
hieroglyphic figures
of Nicholas Flamel,
supposedly carved
on the arch of a
church
in Paris - 17th
century.
ALCH 04. The alchemist
in his study and
laboratory from
Thomas Norton's
Ordinall of
alchemy - 17th century
English engraving
Model of an alchemical laboratory, c.1540, by Tom
McRae
•This reconstruction is built to a scale of 1/12th. The
solid looking walls and flagstones are actually just
painted card.
•The model is illuminated by candles and the light
from the flickering athenor (furnace).
•Dried snakes hang from the left hand side of the
front beam while at the left hand wall the remains of
a spillage can be seen beside the bench.
•A rat lies poisoned in the spillage, reminding us of
the toxic conditions in which those pioneers worked.
•A great press can be seen at the left of the back wall and
the athenor is built at the centre with the bellows to its
right. Vessels stand on shelves around the athenor for
heating at different temperature gradients.
•To the left of the front shelf can be seen The Pelican with its
tubes for spirit production.
•On the floor in front of the bellows stands a cauldron of
decomposing organic material.
•A large pentacle (five-pointed shape used as a magic
symbol) has been drawn in the centre of the floor with
candles at each point.
•Within the circle a mortar- like altar is used to hold
mixtures which "Other Powers" are invoked to charge with
occult powers. A ritual sword leans on the altar and was
used to close the circle when the alchemist started working.
B. How relevant was alchemy to Robert Boyle’s work?
•Robert Boyle had a great interest in alchemy for he thought
it would give him information on the structure of matter.
•This was a view he shared with his contemporary, Isaac
Newton, who was similarly interested in alchemy.
• As he was deeply religious, he also thought that finding the
philosopher’s stone would allow him to communicate with
angels and other spirituals beings.
•However, the overtones of mystical revelation involved in
this aspect of the science caused him concern, since he
worried that the shortcuts that it appeared to offer to an
understanding of nature might represent temptations from
the Devil.
•Historians know about Boyle’s interest in alchemy because he wrote a
text entitled Dialogue on the Transmutation and Melioration of Metals
which, as one historian (Lawrence M. Principe) has recently shown,
showed Boyle to believe in the possibility of metallic transmutation just
like the alchemists before him.
•He was also interested in meeting people who had seen base metals
transformed into gold and some of his papers contain descriptions of
meetings with people who claimed to have seen such events.
•Boyle had read the writings (published in the seventeenth century)
attributed to Nicholas Flamel referred to above, and he was also eager
to make contact with other alchemists who had carried out experiments
•. For example, in 1678, a French man wrote to Boyle inviting him to join
a secret society of alchemists; he was promised that upon joining he
would receive the alchemical secrets of the transmutation of metals. In
order to join, Boyle was told to send expensive gifts to the leader of the
group in Turkey. Boyle did do this, and sent his expensive gifts … but he
never did receive his alchemical secrets. Had he been duped?
Like the alchemists, who often tried to keep their art
secret by the use of esoteric symbols and ciphers,
Boyle also deployed these techniques of secrecy and
he too used ciphers and alchemical symbols in his
writings.
In fact, such was Boyle’s interest in alchemy that he
supported the repeal (reverse) of the medieval laws
that punished people who tried to manufacture gold
from base metals through alchemy.
©
Source one: Workdiary
18 – How to separate
gold from silver and
from copper. In this
manuscript, Boyle uses
the symbols used by
alchemists
Source Two In this extract, Boyle tells his
friend Gilbert Burnet about a time when he
saw a man supposedly change lead into gold
before his very eyes.
‘The man had a crucible in which was
contained some lead. He put in a bright
power and put the crucible on the fire to
heat. He removed it and when it was cold I
was surprised to find not lead but gold,
which, after testing, turned out to be true
gold’.
(Adapted from M. Hunter, Boyle by Himself
and His Friends (London, 1994), pp. 29-30)
C. How have historians interpreted Boyle’s alchemical interests?
•Historians of the 18th century and later have tended to ignore and
discredit Boyle’s alchemical interests.
• This was because their ideas were shaped by a new intellectual
movement called The Enlightenment, in which rational observation
was thought to be better than irrational, ‘mystical’ ideas.
•These ‘enlightened’ historians felt that alchemical knowledge was ‘old
fashioned’, misguided and superstitious.
•It was thus thought to be no longer relevant to the development of
modern science which was based on empirical study (ie rational
observation and experiment).
•For example, in the 1950s and 1960s, Marie Boas wrote a number of
books on Boyle. In them she claimed that in his work Boyle avoided
alchemy and that in particular in his book The Sceptical Chymist (1661)
he blasted alchemy and did not like using ‘secret’ practices like the
alchemists did.
•As you have seen from the texts above, Boyle was clearly working within the
alchemical tradition.
• However, as you will have learnt from previous lessons on Boyle, Boyle also
pioneered other more ‘modern’ empirical scientific methods based on observation
and experiment – methods which scientists still use today.
• Thus, post-Enlightenment historians wanted only to emphasize the ‘modern’
rational elements of Boyle’s work rather than those based on irrational, and
therefore redundant, practices.
•Much more recently, a few twentieth-century historians have rediscovered and reinterpreted Boyle’s alchemical interests and have described them in a much more
positive light.
•As a result of this, they have shown that Boyle was a figure working in a time of
transition, who used both older alchemical and more ‘modern’ scientific practices
throughout his life.
• This is apparent in the work of Lawrence M. Principe, writing in the 1990s. In the
preface to his recent book he stated ‘[the fact] that Isaac Newton or Robert Boyle or
any other seventeenth-century natural philosopher should have believed in ...
alchemy should no longer horrify [historians] ... and the sheer extent of alchemical
material in Boyle’s manuscripts ... [is] astonishing’. (The Aspiring Adept: Robert Boyle
and his Alchemical Quest (1998), pp. 4-5).