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ISLAMISATION POLICY IN MALAYSIA: A POLICY STUDY IN A MULTI-RELIGIOUS SOCIETY ____________________________________________________ ZATUL HIMMAH ADNAN B.A. (Hons.), M.A. Thesis submitted in fulfillment of the requirement for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy Politics and Public Policy School of Social and Policy Studies Faculty of Social and Behavioural Sciences Flinders University Adelaide Australia JANUARY 2013 CANDIDATE’S DECLARATION I certify that this thesis does not incorporate without acknowledgment any material previously submitted for a degree or diploma in any university; and that to the best of my knowledge and belief it does not contain any material previously published or written by another person except where due reference is made in the text. Zatul Himmah Adnan January, 2013 i ABSTRACT The formalisation of efforts and support for Islam in Malaysia have been described as part of the governmental drive for Islamisation, commonly known as “Islamisation Policy”. This idea of ‘Islamisation’ is a contested concept open to various interpretations since it is not officially defined in government’s blueprint. This study arose from two main concerns. First, since Islamisation Policy is not documented or legislated, the meaning and content of Islamisation Policy needs to be made explicit. Second, based on emerging criticisms of and concerns about Islamisation Policy in the mass media as well as in academic literature, there is a need to explore the diversity of perceptions in Malaysia’s multi-religious community towards Islamisation Policy. This study provides a policy analysis of Islam in the Malaysian context and its impact on a multi-religious society. The primary aim is to explore the content of Islamisation Policy in a multi-religious society based on the perspectives of four different groups of stakeholders. Three main areas of Islamisation Policy were analysed: the content, implementation and its impact. The study covers the period from 1981 until 2009, which includes Mahathir’s administration (1981 – 2003) until the end of Abdullah’s term (2003 – 2009), focusing on four major areas of the policy’s implementation: public administration, education, laws and economics. The exploration of the multi-religious society’s views towards Islamisation Policy was carried out through semi-structured interviews with four groups of key persons in the government and community, i.e. former ministers, administrators, community representatives and commentators. The analysis produced three insights into Islamisation Policy. First, a pattern of perspectives regarding Islamisation Policy was identified. This pattern shows that views are more complex than just ‘for’ and ‘against’, although there were two broad groups: the Proponents who support the Policy, and the Opponents who oppose it. This diversity is significant in that it helps to provide a better understanding of some multi-religious perspectives towards Islamisation Policy and also in identifying its implications. Second, an exposition of Islamisation Policy as a public policy was investigated. Despite being an unlegislated and informal policy, this exposition assists in understanding its current status as well as informing future directions. ii Third, the consequences of Islamisation Policy were identified. The achievements of the Policy and the repercussions of its implementation demonstrate both the intended and unintended outcomes. These three insights are the main contribution this study makes to the area of Islam in public policy in a diverse society. In particular, this study addresses a gap in studies of Islamisation and multi-religious society in Malaysia from a public policy perspective. The negative outcomes emerging from the Policy suggest that there is a need for the government to seriously assess some areas of concern and review the implementation process of Islamisation in maintaining the cohesion of Malaysia’s multi-religious society. iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENT All praises to Allah who gives the strength and guidance to complete this PhD journey. First and foremost, I would like express my greatest gratitude to my supportive principal supervisor Dr Noore A. Siddiquee and co-supervisor Assoc. Prof. Dr Jo Baulderstone for their generous advice, wisdom, unconditional support and guidance in the last few years. Thank you for not giving up on me. Special appreciation goes to Prof. Dr Jayum Jawan as an advisor during the fieldwork back home and Dr Michael Barr as an interim supervisor during the six month absence of my principal supervisor. I would like to gratefully acknowledge the community of Flinders University. Thank you to the staff and ‘family’ of Deirdre Jordan Village (DJV) for the accommodation and hospitality especially to Janet Armitage and Gary Shaw. Many thanks to the supportive ISSU team especially Jane Horgan, Klaus Koefer and Maxine. Thank you to the staff of the Faculty (FSSBS) and Department of Politics and Public Policy for all the help. To all my ‘FIPPM friends’ thank you for the inspiring thoughts and friendships in Adelaide. I am deeply grateful for the support given by the top management of the Faculty of Human Ecology, Universiti Putra Malaysia during my PhD candidature, especially to Prof. Dr Laily Paim (former Dean of the Faculty), Assoc. Prof. Dr Zaid Ahmad (current Dean of the Faculty and former Head of Department of Government and Civilisation Studies) and Dr Ahmad Tarmizi Talib (current Head of Department). I would also like to extend my special thanks to all insightful informants and helpful staffs from all the organisations that have participated in my study. Family, friends and colleagues were always my strength and inspiration in this journey. Thank you to my beloved mother, my sister and her children for the unconditional support, patience and love. To my ‘PhD companions’; Nita, Junyi, Munira, Wan Norwidayawaty, Faza, Awan, Suzie, Anan, Andry, Husna, Salizar, Arfah, Zuriyati and Zana, thank you for everything. To my colleagues especially Sri Rahayu, Dr Adlina, Dr Nobaya, Dr Haslinda, Zarina, Normala, Dr Sarjit Singh, Dr Lee Yoke Fee and Dr Ku Hasnita thank you for all your support. To Emily, thank you very much. Last but not least, I would like to convey my heartfelt thanks to the government of Malaysia, especially to the Ministry of Higher Education and the Universiti Putra Malaysia for the sponsorship and support throughout my PhD candidature. iv CONTENT CANDIDATE’S DECLARATION ............................................................................................... i ABSTRACT .............................................................................................................................. ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ..........................................................................................................iv CONTENT ................................................................................................................................ v LIST OF DIAGRAMS .............................................................................................................viii LIST OF TABLES ..................................................................................................................viii LIST OF APPENDICES .........................................................................................................viii ABBREVIATION ......................................................................................................................ix GLOSSARY ............................................................................................................................. x CHAPTER 1 OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY ....................................................................... 1 1.0 INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................... 1 1.1 ISLAMISATION POLICY: THE IRONY OF A MULTI RELIGIOUS SOCIETY? ..... 5 1.2 FOCUS AND SCOPE OF THE STUDY...................................................................13 1.3 MALAYSIA: SOME BACKGROUND ......................................................................15 1.3.1 A pluralistic society ............................................................................................16 The Malays ..................................................................................................................18 The Chinese ................................................................................................................20 The Indians ..................................................................................................................22 1.3.2 Malaysia’s Political System ................................................................................24 1.4 DEFINITIONS OF KEY CONCEPTS .......................................................................26 1.4.1 The Government ................................................................................................26 1.4.2 The Community .................................................................................................27 1.4.3 Islamisation and Islamisation Policy ..................................................................27 1.5 CONCLUSION ........................................................................................................29 CHAPTER 2 ISLAM IN THE MALAYSIAN CONTEXT: SOME HISTORICAL BACKGROUND 30 2.0 INTRODUCTION .....................................................................................................30 2.1 THE PRE COLONIAL ERA .....................................................................................30 2.1.1 Pre-Islamic religious traditions ...........................................................................31 2.1.2 The coming of Islam ..........................................................................................32 2.1.3 Islam and Malay institutions ...............................................................................35 Islam and social dimensions ........................................................................................36 Malay political institutions ............................................................................................40 2.2 ISLAM UNDER COLONIAL ADMINISTRATION ....................................................44 2.2.1 Colonial Powers in Malaya: An Overview ..........................................................44 2.2.2 British policy on Islam ........................................................................................47 2.2.3 Islam and Malay nationalism..............................................................................57 2.3 CONCLUSION ........................................................................................................60 v CHAPTER 3 PUBLIC POLICY AND ISLAMISATION IN FRAMEWORK 62 MALAYSIA: THE 3.0 INTRODUCTION .....................................................................................................62 3.1 UNDERSTANDING PUBLIC POLICY.....................................................................62 3.1.1 Public policy: a conceptual discussion ...............................................................63 3.1.2 The Malaysian context .......................................................................................73 3.2 THE DISCOURSE OF “ISLAMISATION POLICY” .................................................83 3.2.1 Islamisation: the definition and context ..............................................................84 3.2.2 Islamisation: the catalyst and cause ..................................................................90 3.2.3 Islamisation and a multi-religious society ...........................................................93 3.2.4 Islamisation: the legal and constitutional framework ..........................................95 3.3 CONCLUSION ........................................................................................................97 CHAPTER 4 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ...................................................................99 4.0 INTRODUCTION .....................................................................................................99 4.1 METHODOLOGICAL APPROACH .........................................................................99 4.2 DATA COLLECTION ............................................................................................104 4.2.1 Government publications .................................................................................104 4.2.2 Interviews.........................................................................................................105 4.2.3 The informants .................................................................................................108 4.3 DATA MANAGEMENT..........................................................................................111 4.3.1 Handling the data.............................................................................................111 4.3.2 Coding and data analysis.................................................................................113 4.4 ETHICAL ISSUES .................................................................................................116 4.5 THE ROLE OF THE RESEARCHER ....................................................................116 4.6 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY ............................................................................118 4.7 CONCLUSION ......................................................................................................119 CHAPTER 5 THE CONTEXT OF ISLAMISATION POLICY: ITS PERCEPTION, CONTENT AND RATIONALE...............................................................................................120 5.0 INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................120 5.1 A FRAMEWORK OF THE DIVERSITY OF PERCEPTIONS IN A MULTIRELIGIOUS SOCIETY ......................................................................................................120 5.2 THE MEANING AND STATUS OF ISLAMISATION POLICY ...............................125 5.2.1 The Islamisation programme as a ‘policy’ ........................................................125 5.2.2 The legitimacy of Islamisation Policy ...............................................................133 5.3 THE FACTORS OF RELIGION AND ETHNICITY ................................................141 5.3.1 Islam ................................................................................................................141 5.3.2 ‘Malayness’ ......................................................................................................145 5.4 POLITICAL MOTIVATION ....................................................................................148 5.4.1 UMNO’s political ambition ................................................................................149 5.4.2 The motivation of the leaders...........................................................................152 5.5 CONCLUSION ......................................................................................................160 CHAPTER 6 ISLAMISATION POLICY: THE APPROACH TO ITS IMPLEMENTATION 163 6.0 INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................163 6.1 A PRAGMATIC APPROACH TO ISLAMISATION? .............................................163 6.1.1 Consistence with Islam ....................................................................................163 6.1.2 Appropriateness in a multi-religious society .....................................................169 vi 6.2 A PROBLEMATIC ISLAMISATION POLICY? ......................................................173 6.2.1 An un-Islamic approach? .................................................................................173 6.2.2 Improper approach and poor implementation ..................................................182 6.3 CONCLUSION ......................................................................................................188 CHAPTER 7 ISLAMISATION POLICY: ACHIEVEMENTS AND REPERCUSSIONS ...191 7.0 INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................191 7.1 ISLAMIC DEVELOPMENTS .................................................................................191 7.1.1 Islamic education .............................................................................................191 7.1.2 An Islamic economy: ‘Halal businesses’ .........................................................199 7.1.3 Shari’ah ...........................................................................................................205 7.1.4 Public services and the Islamic bureaucracy ...................................................210 7.2 THE ADVERSITY OF NON-MUSLIMS: THE DOWNSIDE OF ISLAMISATION POLICY? ...........................................................................................................................218 7.2.1 An imposition on non-Muslims? .......................................................................219 7.2.2 Discrimination in religious rights and practices? ..............................................225 7.3 CONCLUSION ......................................................................................................228 CHAPTER 8 CONCLUSION: INSIGHTS INTO ISLAMISATION POLICY .....................231 8.0 INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................231 8.1 THE PATTERN OF MULTI-RELIGIOUS PERSPECTIVES ON ISLAMISATION POLICY .............................................................................................................................232 8.1.1 The pattern of the perspectives: a recapitulation .............................................233 8.1.2 The diversity of perspectives: where to go now? .............................................244 8.2 ISLAMISATION POLICY: ‘A PUBLIC POLICY’ ...................................................246 8.2.1 The concept of Islamisation Policy ...................................................................248 8.2.2 The aim and motivation ...................................................................................250 8.2.3 The approach and direction of the Policy .........................................................252 8.2.4 The performance of Islamisation policy............................................................254 8.3 CONSEQUENCES OF ISLAMISATION POLICY .................................................255 8.4 THE FUTURE OF ISLAMISATION POLICY .........................................................259 REFERENCES ......................................................................................................................263 APPENDICES .......................................................................................................................285 vii LIST OF DIAGRAMS Diagram 1.1: Percentage distribution of Malaysia’s population by ethnic groups (2010) .........17 Diagram 3.1: Easton’s diagram on political systems ...............................................................68 Diagram 3.2 An integrated implementation model by Soren Winter ........................................72 Diagram 3.3: Model of policy making in Malaysia ....................................................................75 Diagram 3.4 Framework of the study.......................................................................................78 Diagram 3.5: The main areas where Islamisation Policy is implemented ................................80 Diagram 4.1: An excerpt from the coding process .................................................................115 Diagram 5.1: The diversity of informants’ perceptions regarding Islamisation Policy...........125 Diagram 8.1:Summary of pattern of perceptions concerning Islamisation Policy ..................235 Diagram 8.2: The consequences of Islamisation Policy ........................................................255 LIST OF TABLES Table 4.1: Details of the informants .......................................................................................109 Table 4.2: The informants’ profiles by ethnicity and religion ..................................................110 Table 4.3: Informants’ codes based on groups and religious identity ....................................113 LIST OF APPENDICES Appendix 1: Letter of Introduction ..........................................................................................285 Appendix 2: Research Participant Information.......................................................................286 Appendix 3: Consent Form For Participation In Research .....................................................288 Appendix 4: Interview Guide ..................................................................................................289 Appendix 5: Explanatory Notes on Sensitive Issues ..............................................................291 viii ABBREVIATION ABIM Angkatan Belia Islam Malaysia (Malaysian Islamic Youth Movement) BAHEIS Bahagian Hal Ehwal Agama Islam (The Islamic Affairs Division) BFR Base Financing Rates BN Barisan Nasional (National Coalition) DPNI FMS Dasar Penerapan Nilai Islam (The Inculcation of Islamic Values Policy) Federated Malay States IFC Interfaith Commission (Suruhanjaya Antara Agama) IIUM International Islamic University of Malaysia IKIM Institut Kehakiman Islam Malaysia (Institute of Understanding Malaysia) International Institute of Islamic Thought and Civilisation ISTAC JAKIM JAWHAR JAWI JIM JKSM JPM KBSM Islamic Jabatan Kemajuan Islam Malaysia (Department of Islamic Development Malaysia) Jabatan Waqaf, Zakat dan Haji (Department of Waqaf, Zakat and Hajj) Jabatan Agama Islam Wilayah Persekutuan (Federal Territory Islamic Affairs Department) Pertubuhan Jemaah Islah Malaysia Jabatan Kehakiman Shari’ah Malaysia (Department of Shari’ah Judiciary Malaysia) Jabatan Perdana Menteri (Department of Prime Minister) KBSR Kurikulum Bersepadu Sekolah Menengah (Integrated Secondary School Curriculum) Kurikulum Baru Sekolah Rendah (New Primary School Curriculum) MCA Malaysian Chinese Association MCCBCHST MIC Malaysian Consultative Council of Buddhism, Christianity, Hinduism, Sikhism and Taoism Malaysian Indian Congress PAS Parti Islam Se-Malaysia (Pan-Malaysia Islamic Party) SIS Sister in Islam SUHAKAM Suruhanjaya Hak Asasi Manusia Malaysia (Malaysian Human Rights Commission ) Un-federated Malay States UMFS UMNO YADIM Pertubuhan Kebangsaan Melayu Bersatu (United Malays National Organisation) Yayasan Dakwah Islamiah Malaysia (Islamic Dakwah Foundation Malaysia) ix GLOSSARY Adab Islamic etiquette or Islamic ethics and norms of behaviour Adat Malay customs Ad-din Literally from din (religion or faith). Complete way of Islam Aqidah Faith or creed Bilal Those make daily calls to prayer or caller to prayer Dakwah Call to Islam or propagation. Also written as da’wah. Fard ain Personal religious obligations or actions obligatory for every Muslim Fard kifayyah Congregational religious obligations. Also written as Fardhu kifayyah Fatwa Islamic ruling Fiqh Literally means ‘understanding, a knowledge of Shari’ah or commonly refers as Islamic jurisprudence Fitrah Nature or disposition Gharar Unreasonable uncertainty. Commonly refer as illegal activities in economic activities and is prohibited by Islam Gurukul Hindu priest (Tamil). Also commonly known as teacher or master. Hadanah Custody of children Hadith Tradition of the Prophet Muhammad consisting narratives relating his deeds sayings; also interchangeably with the term ‘sunnah’ Hajj Pilgrimage to Mecca and a pillar of Islamic faith. Halal Permissible or lawful by Islamic law Haram Forbidden by Islam Hijab Veil worn by Muslim women Hudud A prescribed penalty fixed by Allah. Also commonly known as penal code of Islam Ijtihad Independent legal judgment based on the interpretation of four basic sources of Islamic law Imam People who led public prayers Khalwat Close proximity Khatib Those who give the sermon during the Friday (and Eid) prayer x Madhab School of thought/law Mal Property Madrasah Islamic school Maqasid The purpose of the Shari’ah, whose preservation and Shari’ah protection amounts to the securing of an interest (maslahah). Also known as maqasid al Syari’ah Nafkah Maintenance money Pondok Literally a hut. Commonly refers as an informal institution of learning or school Qadi Islamic judges. Also written as qadhi Qisas Literally means retaliation; penalty for homicide or criminal punishment Qiyas Reasoning by anology. One of the four main sources of Islamic jurisprudence Riba’ Usury or interest Siak A local position at mosque in Malaysia. Usually involving upkeep and care the mosque Solah Prayer and also written as solat, sholah and salah Sulh Retaliation or end of conflict/mediation Sufi Those emphasising the mystical and spiritual elements of Islam Shari’ah Islamic law which is intended to cover aspect of life. Also written as Shariah Tafsir Exegesis of the Quran Takaful Literally means cooperation. Also commonly known as Islamic insurance Tauhid A doctrine of the oneness of God that is Allah. Ulama Islamic theologians or those who were learned and had a great knowledge of Islamic teachings Ustaz Religious teachers Waqaf Endowment Wasiyah Wills Zakat Alms or religious tithes obligatory on Muslim Zina Adultery xi