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Gloriosa superba L.
Protologue
Sp. pl. 1: 305 (1753)
Family
Colchicaceae
Chromosome number
2n = 14, 22, 33, 44, 66, 77, 84, 88, 90
Synonyms
Gloriosa simplex L. (1767), Gloriosa virescens Lindl. (1825), Gloriosa abyssinica
A.Rich. (1850), Gloriosa carsonii Baker. (1895), Gloriosa minor Rendle (1896),
Gloriosa baudii (N.Terracc.) Chiov. (1916).
Vernacular names
Glory lily, flame lily, climbing lily, creeping lily (En). Lis de Malabar, lis grimpant,
lis glorieux (Fr). Garras de tigre, aranha de emposse (Po). Mkalamu, kimanja
nouchawi (Sw).
Origin and geographic distribution
Gloriosa superba occurs naturally in Africa, in India, and southeastern Asia, and
is nowadays distributed widely throughout the tropics, and worldwide as a pot
plant. In Africa, its distribution is from Senegal east to Ethiopia and Somalia, and
south to South Africa.
Uses
In tropical Africa the different parts of Gloriosa superba have a wide variety of
uses, especially in traditional medicine. In Côte d’Ivoire a leaf decoction applied
as a liniment eases cough and general pain, and leaf juice is instilled into the
nose in case of fainting. In Côte d’Ivoire and Burkina Faso leaves are
administered in enema as a decongestant. In Congo crushed leaves are applied
to the chest to treat asthma. In Burundi a leaf decoction is recommended for
treating dropsy of the scrotum, while the leaf pulp serves against rheumatism.
The Ulanga people of Tanzania burn the herb and apply ash on wounds to
promote healing. They also drink the plant juice as an antimalarial.
At low doses, the tuber has numerous medicinal applications. It is used
traditionally for the treatment of bruises, colic, chronic ulcers, haemorrhoids and
cancer, and is also employed as a tonic and purgative. It is put into poultices to
relieve neuralgia, and used in topical applications to treat arthritic conditions,
swellings of the joints, sprains and dislocations. The tuber is claimed to have
antidotal properties to snakebites. In Sudan tuber sap is an ingredient of a drink
that induces sleep. The Marakwet people of Kenya take a tuber decoction
against abdominal disorders and to induce abortion. Macerated tuber is also
taken against smallpox, leprosy, eczema, itch, and ringworm. In DR Congo the
rasped and washed tuber is used externally to treat venereal diseases and
stomach-ache.
The anthelmintic properties of the tuber, fruits and leaves are widely known and
they are used to treat infections of Guinea worms, schistosomes (causing
bilharzia), roundworm, tapeworm, liver fluke and filaria. A rectal injection of the
juice from mashed leaves is applied to cure female sterility among Pygmy
groups. A paste made from the tuber is applied externally to facilitate parturition.
The Ulanga people of Tanzania use tuber juice for ear drops to treat earache,
while the Shona people of Zimbabwe drop tuber juice on painful teeth. In Zambia
the tuber is part of a preparation for impotence, and is used as an abortifacient.
Soup made from leaf or tuber sap is given to women suffering from sterility,
delayed puberty, delayed childbirth and menstrual problems. Leaf juice, unripe
fruits mixed with butter, and tuber macerate are frequently used to kill head lice.
In northern Nigeria the tuber is added to arrow poison based on Strophanthus sp.
In coastal Kenya and Tanzania, powdered tuber is commonly used as a suicidal
agent and to commit homicide, because of its high toxicity. The species is also
widely believed to have magical properties.
Several cultivars of Gloriosa superba are cultivated in the tropics and under
greenhouse conditions in temperate regions, the commonest being
‘Rothschildiana’. It is grown both as a cut flower and as a pot plant.
Production and international trade
Gloriosa superba is exported by India and Sri Lanka to pharmaceutical
industries, and more recently also by a few African companies based in Nigeria,
Cameroon and Zimbabwe. Quantities involved are not known.
Properties
The medicinal importance of Gloriosa superba is due to the presence of alkaloids
in all parts of the plant, mainly colchicine (superbine), an amino alkaloid derived
from the amino acids phenylalanine and tyrosine. The presence of colchicinetype alkaloids with a tropolone ring is characteristic for most genera in
Colchicaceae. The seeds are the best source of colchicine, as their content is 2–
5 times higher than in the tubers. A report from Rwanda claims that the highest
colchicine content is found in young leaves.
Several colchicine-related alkaloids have been isolated from tubers and seeds.
They are mostly demethyl substitutes and include cornigerine, which is a potent
antimitotic, and colchicoside used as a muscle relaxant. A plant can contain up to
0.9% colchicine and 0.8% colchicoside.
In medicine, colchicine is used in the treatment of gout. In spite of its serious
side-effects it is still commonly used for acute gout. It reduces the inflammatory
reaction to urate crystals deposited in the joints. Its efficacy might be due to
decreased leukocyte mobility. The substance is not an analgesic, and has no
effect on blood concentration, nor on renal excretion of uric acid. Diarrhoea,
nausea, vomiting and abdominal pains are the first signs of poisoning and occur
at doses equal to or lower than those needed to treat gout. The diarrhoea may
become severe and haemorrhagic. A burning sensation in the throat, stomach
and skin may also be an early sign of intoxication. Nibbling on the tubers causes
numbness of the lips and tongue and loss of body hair. Severe reactions include
extensive vascular damage and acute renal toxicity with oliguria and haematuria.
The patients may develop convulsions, delirium, muscle weakness, neuropathy
and ascending paralysis of the central nervous system. In patients who have
taken an overdose of Gloriosa superba tubers, death occurs as a result of
respiratory depression and cardiovascular collapse within a few days.
Colchicine is a powerful antimitotic agent that blocks or suppresses cell division
by inhibiting mitosis, the division of a cell’s nucleus. It is used in plant breeding to
induce polyploidy, as it allows chromosome division but inhibits formation of a
mitotic spindle figure, which guides the separation of the two sets of haploid
chromosomes. As a result no sister cells are formed. Once the treatment has
stopped, however, the normal spindle figure forms again. Colchicine also inhibits
the division of animal cells, but it is too toxic to be used to arrest tumour growth.
A biosynthetic precursor of colchicine, demecolcine, has a wider margin of safety
and is used to treat myelogenic leukaemia and malignant lymphoma. Extracts of
the shoots and of the tubers of Gloriosa superba show strong nematicidal
activity, which can be largely attributed to colchicine. The chemical constituents
of the tuber are known to be very poisonous to fish. Severe damage is done by
colchicine-containing plants to livestock in different parts of Africa.
In vitro production of colchicine is feasible, although the levels are in general 10–
25 times lower than those found in plants grown in vivo.
Adulterations and substitutes
The corms of Colchicum autumnale L. and Iphigenia spp. (also Colchicaceae)
are traditional sources of colchicine. An increase in demand for colchicine
stimulated the search for an alternative source, leading to Gloriosa superba.
Chemical synthesis of colchicine is possible but complicated. Synthesis is
expected to remain an important target of the chemical industry. In-vitro
production of colchicine is also possible but gives low yields.
Description
Climbing, sometimes erect herb up to 4 m long; stem annual, glabrous and
sparsely branched; tuber perennial, horizontal, abruptly bent in a V or L shape,
roots fibrous. Leaves in whorls of 3–4, opposite or alternate, simple, sessile;
blade ovate to lanceolate, 6–15(–20) cm × 1.5–4 cm, base obtuse, apex of upper
leaves with or without 1–2 cm long tendril, parallel-veined. Flowers axillary,
solitary, bisexual, regular, 6-merous, 4.5–7 cm in diameter, showy, pendulous;
pedicel 4–20 cm long; perianth segments free, lanceolate or oblanceolate, 5–7(–
9) cm × 1(–2) cm, often with undulate margins, strongly reflexed when mature,
persistent, usually yellow and red, less often yellow, red or white; stamens with
filaments 2–5 cm long, spreading, anthers 7–10 mm long, opening by longitudinal
slits; ovary superior, 3-celled, carpels coherent only by their inner margins, style
filiform, 2–4(–5.5) cm long, bent at a right angle basally. Fruit a loculicidal, oblong
capsule 4–6 cm × 1–2 cm, containing up to 20(–40) seeds. Seeds ovoid, 4–5 mm
in diameter, surrounded by a fleshy, red sarcotesta.
Other botanical information
The taxonomy of Gloriosa is confused, and up to 27 species have been
recognized. Gloriosa superba is considered here a single highly variable species.
In Zimbabwe morphologically uniform populations occur which have variable
polyploidy levels, but the cytological differentiation does not reflect any precise
geographical trend. The widely cultivated cultivar ‘Rothschildiana’ is hexaploid.
Growth and development
Gloriosa superba is a typical geophyte whose aerial stems die down in the dry
season and the tuber is dormant during this period, only sprouting with the rains.
Two or more tubers develop during each growing season, while the previous
season’s tuber starts to shrivel. The tuber contains mainly starch, which
increases gradually until the tuber is full grown. Colchicine content in tubers
increases simultaneously. Plants propagated from seeds take 3–4 years to
bloom. Plants produced from tubers develop (1–)3–6 stems, which start flowering
after 5–8 weeks and continue flowering for about another 7 weeks, after which
the stems die. Development from visible flower bud to bloom takes about 2
weeks and anthesis occurs 1 day later with the stigma being receptive for 4 days;
anther dehiscence is one day after anthesis. The same branch flowers at 3-day
intervals. Terminal flowers do not usually set fruit, but if they do, only a few seeds
are produced. Pollination is probably by butterflies and sunbirds. Fruits are
mature 6–10 weeks after pollination. The red sarcotesta suggests seed dispersal
by animals. The dimensions and branching pattern of the plants are strongly
correlated with tuber weight.
Ecology
Gloriosa superba prefers a climate with a pronounced rainy season, avoiding
per-humid tropical areas. It is most common in forest-savanna boundaries. It is
locally common in thickets, hedges, open forest, grassland and bushland, where
it can be seen scrambling through shrubs, and is also found in abandoned
cultivated areas. It occurs from sea-level up to 2500 m altitude. Gloriosa superba
grows best in well-drained, acid to neutral soil rich in organic matter.
Propagation and planting
Gloriosa superba is propagated mainly during the rainy season, by bulblets,
division of the tubers or from seed. V- or L-shaped tubers should be divided
every third year. The tuber is delicate, and should be teased apart gently just
before new growth begins, when the buds are easiest to spot. Each tuber part
must contain several axillary buds that ensure the formation of adventitious
stems and roots. Vegetative propagation by tubers is common practice but slow
as the maximum number of daughter tubers produced per plant per year is two.
Separating 2-lobed tubers produces a higher percentage of flowering plants than
leaving the tubers undivided (97% versus 63%). Sprouting of the tubers is
irregular and reaches about 60% in 30 days. Tuber dormancy can be overcome
by soaking in continuously aerated water. Small tubers have been found to have
a higher success rate than bigger ones. Tubers of 50–60 g are planted
horizontally and 30–45 cm apart in well-tilled soil at a depth of 6–8 cm in furrows
45–60 cm apart. A closer spacing gives a higher percentage of cross-pollination
resulting in improved fruit set. The best planting medium is a 1:1:2 mixture of soil,
sand and compost.
Growing Gloriosa superba from seed requires more time. The seeds have to be
soaked overnight in warm water, and then planted in a well-drained medium.
Germination is erratic and may take from 3 weeks to 3 months. Seedlings grow
rapidly and mostly produce tubers by their second year; flowering starts in the
fourth year. Chemical scarification (e.g. with 1% hypochlorite) or removal of the
sarcotesta reduces seed dormancy from 6–9 months to about 4 months, and
accelerates germination to 11–15 days. Germination rates as high as 97% have
been reached for seeds incubated at 20–25°C for a period of 31 days. Higher
temperatures have adverse effects.
As seed germination is poor and vegetative propagation is slow, methods of
rapid micropropagation have been developed, using explants preferably from
tubers and an auxin-enriched growth medium. Explants from meristematic parts
of the tuber yield the highest number of plantlets. A growth medium containing
thiamine hydrochloride and NaCl yielded large numbers of mature microtubers in
3–4 months. Periodic darkness accelerates this process.
Management
Gloriosa superba prefers light to medium shade. In general, the plants are grown
organically. Before sowing, 15–20 t of farmyard manure is applied. It is also
possible to apply a dose of 40 kg N, 50 kg P2O5 and 75 kg K2O per ha at planting
with a top dressing of 80 kg N per ha, 8 weeks after planting. The top dressing
should coincide with staking of the growing stems. Irrigation is needed for dry
spells during the initial stages of growth. Irrigation applied after flowering may
cause the tubers to rot. Poor fruit set is a problem in plantings in southern India.
This may be attributed to inadequate pollination, which can be overcome by
artificial pollination. Although considerable information is available on the
cultivation of Gloriosa superba under greenhouse conditions, the techniques
used are not applicable to field conditions in tropical regions.
Different pollination methods were studied including natural pollination, controlled
selfing and cross-pollination. Although flower colour and shape seem to favour
cross-pollination, self-pollination provides better results. Controlled selfing
between flowers on the same plant (idiogamy) gives significantly higher seed
yield (9.2 g/plant), compared to naturally pollinated ones (4.3 g/plant).
Diseases and pests
Leaf blight (Curvularia lunata) and tuber rot (Sclerotium spp.) are important
fungal diseases of Gloriosa superba under per-humid conditions. Caterpillars of
the moths Polytela gloriosa and Chrysodeixis chalcites attack foliage and flower
buds. Under greenhouse conditions, lice and thrips can be a problem.
Harvesting
Mature fruits of Gloriosa superba are hand picked, and the tubers are dug out
manually.
Yield
In South Africa the seed production of ‘wild-type’ plants is positively correlated
with height of the plant, and is on average 258 seeds per plant for plants 60–65
cm tall compared with about 30 seeds per plant for plants 30–40 cm tall. In Tamil
Nadu, India, small-scale plantings, raised from tubers, yield on average 250–300
kg seed/ha from the second year onwards.
Handling after harvest
Seeds and tubers are traded in various forms: fresh, dry, powdered, or in oil. In
South-East Asia, after harvesting, mature fruits of Gloriosa superba are left in the
shade to dry for 7–10 days. The fruits are then split open and the seeds
removed, dried for a week in the shade and subsequently sun dried for another
week.
Genetic resources
Gloriosa superba has a wide natural distribution, and many selections are
cultivated. Local depletion of the resource does occur, in India particularly, where
the species has become endangered due to overcollection of the tubers.
Although in its natural habitat, seed set and germination is poor. Gloriosa
superba is not threatened and the diversity still offers opportunities for further
selection either for chemical constituents or as an ornamental. Investment
analysis shows that Gloriosa superba cultivation is profitable under both irrigated
and rainfed conditions. There are no known germplasm collections of Gloriosa
superba.
Breeding
There are several cultivars of Gloriosa superba for ornamental purposes, with
‘Rothschildiana’ being the most frequently encountered; ‘Lutea’ is a yellow
flowered form, while ‘Citrina’ is yellow with dark red markings. There is also a
dwarf cultivar called ‘Nana’.
Prospects
Gloriosa superba is widely used as a medicinal plant in Africa, despite the fact
that the whole plant is very poisonous. It is therefore recommended that
protocols for safe use of the different plant parts be developed. Gloriosa superba
is commonly grown as a garden ornamental in the tropics and also shows
interesting potential as a source of colchicine. Thus, in Africa there might be
good opportunities for planting the crop commercially for ornamental purposes,
or for the production of colchicine.
Major references
• Bunyapraphatsara, N. & van Valkenburg, J.L.C.H., 1999. Gloriosa superba L.
In: de Padua, L.S., Bunyapraphatsara, N. & Lemmens, R.H.M.J. (Editors). Plant
Resources of South-East Asia No 12(1). Medicinal and poisonous plants 1.
Backhuys Publishers, Leiden, Netherlands. pp. 289–292.
• Burkill, H.M., 1995. The useful plants of West Tropical Africa. 2nd Edition.
Volume 3, Families J–L. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, Richmond, United
Kingdom. 857 pp.
• Duke, J.A., 1992. Handbook of phytochemical constituents of GRAS herbs and
other economic plants. CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida, United States. 654 pp.
• Finnie, J.F. & Van Staden, J., 1994. Gloriosa superba L. (Flame Lily):
Micropropagation and in vitro production of colchicine. In: Bajaj, Y.P.S. (Editor):
Biotechnology in agriculture and forestry. Volume 26. Medicinal and Aromatic
Plants VI. Springer Verlag. Berlin, Heidelberg, New York, London, Paris, Tokyo.
pp. 147–166.
• Iwu, M.M., 1993. Handbook of African medicinal plants. CRC Press, Boca
Raton, Florida, United States. 464 pp.
• Le Roux, L.G. & Robbertse, P.J., 1994. Tuber ontogeny, morphology and
vegetative reproduction of Gloriosa superba L. South African Journal of Botany
60: 321–324.
• Le Roux, L.G. & Robbertse, P.J., 1997. Aspects relating to seed production in
Gloriosa superba L. South African Journal of Botany 63(4): 191–197.
• Neuwinger, H.D., 1996. African ethnobotany: poisons and drugs. Chapman &
Hall, London, United Kingdom. 941 pp.
• Raina, R. & Gupta, L.M., 1999. Increasing seed yield in glory lily (Gloriosa
superba) - experimental approaches. Acta Horticulturae 502: 175–179.
• Sivakumar, G. & Krishnamurthy, K.V., 2000. Micropropagation of Gloriosa
superba L., an endangered species of Asia and Africa. Current Science 78(1):
647–659.
Other references
• Chumsri, P., Sawangsuksakul, P., Sornchai, S. & Tempeam, A., 2000. Bulbil
formations from plantlets of Gloriosa superba L. Mahidol University Annual
Research Abstracts 28: 186.
• Cortnummé, J., Wehrenfennig, M. & Horn, W., 1997. Temperaturbehandlung im
Lager von Gloriosa superba (Liliaceae). Poster, Jahrestagung der Deutschen
Gartenbauwissenschaftlichen Gesellschaft 1996, Hannover. BDGLSchriftenreihe 14. p. 138.
• Engprasert, S., 1995. Isolation, structure elucidation, assay and cytotoxic
property of tropolone alkaloids from tubers of Gloriosa superba Linn. MSc Thesis,
Faculty of Graduate Studies, Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand.
• Farooqi, A.A., Kumaraswamy, B.K., Bojappa, K.N., Pusalkar, V.R. & Gupta, R.,
1993. Plantations of the clinically important Gloriosa superba. Indian Horticulture
37(4): 26–29.
• Fernando, R. & Widyaratna, D., 1997. Gloriosa superba L. [Internet]
International Programme on Chemical Safety (IPCS), Chemical Safety
Information from Intergovernmental Organizations, INCHEM.
http://www.inchem.org/documents/pims/plant/pim245.htm. Accessed 27 July
2004.
• Field, D.V., 1972. The genus Gloriosa. Lilies 1973: 93-95.
• Khumwanich, K., 1999. Effect of crude extract from climbing lily Gloriosa
superba Linn. seeds on polyploid induction of watermelon Citrullus lanatus Mats
& Nakai in vitro. MSc Thesis, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand. 90
pp.
• Maroyi, A., 1999. Taxonomic studies on the family Colchicaceae in Zimbabwe
with emphasis on variation in the genus Gloriosa. M.Ph. Thesis, Department of
Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, University of Zimbabwe, Harare,
Zimbabwe. 117 pp.
• Ntahomvukiye, D., Hakizimana, A., Nkiliza, J. & Van Puyvelde, L., 1984.
Dosage de la colchicine dans le Gloriosa simplex L. (Liliacées) du Rwanda
(Afrique Centrale). Plantes Médicinales et Phytothérapie 18(1): 24-27.
• Pandey, R. & Haseeb, A., 1988. Studies in the toxicity of extracts of certain
medicinal plants to rootknot nematode Meloidogyne incognita (Kifoid & White)
Chitwood. Indian Journal of Plant Pathology 6(2): 184–186.
• Saravanan, S. & Buvaneswaran, C., 2003. Gloriosa superba L. cultivation in
Tamil Nadu. A socio-economic analysis. Advances in Plant Sciences 16(1): 23–
28.
• Sivakumar, G. & Krishnamurthy, K.V., 2002. Gloriosa superba L. - a very useful
medicinal plant. In: Singh, V.K., Govil, J.N., Hashmi, S. & Singh, G. (Editors).
Recent progress in medicinal plants Volume 7: Ethnomedicine & Pharmacognosy
II. Sci-Tech. Publishing LLC, Houston, Texas, USA. pp. 465–481.
• Tarar, J.L. & Vishwakarma, M., 1995. Chromosome morphology of diploid and
tetraploid Gloriosa superba Linn. In: Padhye, M.D., Mukherjee, P.K. & Khalatkar,
A.S. (Editors). Botany Towards 2000 A.D. (Prof. V.R. Dnyansagar
Commemoration Volume). Vedams Book, New Delhi, India.
• van Wyk, B.E., van Heerden, F. & van Oudtshoorn, B., 2002. Poisonous plants
of South Africa. Briza Publications, Pretoria, South Africa. 288 pp.
• Watt, J.M. & Breyer-Brandwijk, M.G., 1962. The medicinal and poisonous plants
of southern and eastern Africa. 2nd Edition. E. and S. Livingstone, London,
United Kingdom. 1457 pp.
Sources of illustration
• Bunyapraphatsara, N. & van Valkenburg, J.L.C.H., 1999. Gloriosa superba L.
In: de Padua, L.S., Bunyapraphatsara, N. & Lemmens, R.H.M.J. (Editors). Plant
Resources of South-East Asia No 12(1). Medicinal and poisonous plants 1.
Backhuys Publishers, Leiden, Netherlands. pp. 289–292.
Author(s)
• E. Dounias
Centre d’Ecologie Fonctionnelle et Evolutive, Center for Evolutionary and
Functional Ecology (CEFE-CNRS), 1919, route de Mende, 34293 Montpellier
cedex 5, France
Based on PROSEA 12(1): ‘Medicinal and poisonous plants 1’.
Editors
• G.H. Schmelzer
PROTA Network Office Europe, Wageningen University, P.O. Box 341, 6700
AH Wageningen, Netherlands
• A. Gurib-Fakim
Faculty of Science, University of Mauritius, Réduit, Mauritius
Associate editors
• C.H. Bosch
PROTA Network Office Europe, Wageningen University, P.O. Box 341, 6700
AH Wageningen, Netherlands
• M.S.J. Simmonds
Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, Richmond, Surrey TW9 3AB, United Kingdom
• R. Arroo
Leicester School of Pharmacy, Natural Products Research, De Montfort
University, The Gateway, Leicester LE1 9BH, United Kingdom
• A. de Ruijter
PROTA Network Office Europe, Wageningen University, P.O. Box 341, 6700
AH Wageningen, Netherlands
General editors
• R.H.M.J. Lemmens
PROTA Network Office Europe, Wageningen University, P.O. Box 341, 6700
AH Wageningen, Netherlands
• L.P.A. Oyen
PROTA Network Office Europe, Wageningen University, P.O. Box 341, 6700
AH Wageningen, Netherlands
Photo editor
• A. de Ruijter
PROTA Network Office Europe, Wageningen University, P.O. Box 341, 6700
AH Wageningen, Netherlands
wild
1, flowering stem; 2, tubers; 3, fruit.
Source: PROSEA
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