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Verb and Sentence Types (One good way to identify the verb or verbs in a sentence is to look for words that show tense.) Intransitive Verbs Intransitive verbs cannot be followed by adjectives, nouns or noun phrases. Intransitive verbs can be followed by adverbs or adverb phrases. Sally sank. (subject + intransitive verb) Ellen drove frantically. (subject + intransitive verb + adverb) Gunpowder burns very rapidly. (subject + intransitive + adverb phrase) Linking Verbs and Forms of Be Commonly used linking verbs: appear, become, feel, grow, look, remain, seem, sound, stay, turn Forms of be: am, is, are, was, were, be, being, been Linking verbs and forms of be cannot end sentences and cannot be followed by adverbs. Linking verbs and forms of be must be followed by nouns, noun phrases, adjectives and adjective phrases. To test for a linking verb, substitute a form of be. My weekend was a ruin. (subject + linking verb + noun) Your cat is one smart feline. (subject + linking verb + noun phrase) Lisa remained asleep. (subject + linking verb + adjective) George became insufferably conceited. (subject + linking verb + adjective phrase) Transitive Verbs Transitive verbs must be followed by nouns and noun phrases These nouns and noun phrases do not rename their subjects. These nouns and noun phrases are called direct objects. Often, the object of a transitive verb has something “done” to it. Betsy bounced the basketball. (subject + transitive verb + direct object) Francis broke the fragile, fifty-year-old French horn. (subject + transitive verb + direct object) Sentences with transitive verbs can be turned into passive sentences or sentences that use the passive voice. It is generally wise to avoid the passive voice. The basketball was bounced by Betsy. The fragile, fifty-year-old French horn was broken by Francis. Two-Place Transitives: Indirect and Direct Objects These transitive verbs are followed by two nouns or noun phrases. The first noun after the verb is called an indirect object and the second a direct object. The Lizard Alliance gave the zoo seven healthy gators. (subject + verb + indirect object + direct object) These sentences can be rearranged using the prepositions to or for. The Lizard Alliance gave seven healthy gators to the zoo. Two-Place Transitives: Direct Objects and Object Complements These transitive verbs are followed first by a noun or noun phrase that functions as a direct object, then by another noun or noun phrase, an adjective, or an infinitive phrase. The phrases after the direct objects are called object complements because they complete the predicate of the sentence by describing or renaming the direct object. George considers Tom a smart man. (subject + verb + direct object + object complement) Spreadsheets make business analysis easy. (subject + verb + direct object + object complement) Thomas Jefferson considered the Missouri compromise to be the death of the nation. (subject + verb + direct object + object complement) Commonly used verbs that take complements: appoint, name, make, think, call, prepare. Phrases Prepositional Phrases Prepositions always appear in a sentence as the first word of a short phrase. A phrase is a group of words that makes sense but does not have a subject or a verb. Prepositional phrases always begin with a preposition and end with an object of the preposition. The object is always a noun or a pronoun. Common prepositions: about above around at besides between except for near of since through up upon Compound prepositions: according to by means of in spite of out of across before but (except) from off throughout with as of in addition to instead of owing to after behind by in on to within against below concerning inside out toward without aside from in front of next to prior to along beneath down into over under among beside during like past until because of in place of on account of The article about Indian folklore is fascinating. Agatha Christie was a widely read writer of mysteries. According to Stephen King, adverbs are untrustworthy. Participle Phrases A participle is a verb form that can function as an adjective and can be placed in various positions in a sentence. A present participle is made up of the base form of the verb plus –ing: falling. A past participle is usually made up of the base form plus –ed: burned. A participial phrase contains a participle plus any complements and modifiers. Knowing the woodlands well, the groups gathered wild fruit. (adjective) Some of the groups had totem poles decorated with carvings. (adjective) The dense forests inhabited by these groups have a temperate climate and plentiful rainfall. (adjective) Gerund Phrases A gerund is a verb form that ends in –ing and is used in the same way a noun is used. A gerund phrase is a gerund plus any complements and modifiers. The difference between a present participle and a gerund is that a present participle is used as an adjective and a gerund is used as a noun. She is good at remembering trivia. (noun) Caring for pets is a good way of earning money. (noun) The most amusing event, catching a greased pig, was the highlight of the fair. (noun) Infinitive Phrases An infinitive is a verb form that is usually preceded by the word to and is used as a noun, an adjective, or an adverb. An infinitive phrase is an infinitive plus any complements and modifiers. To complete a triathlon is a success in itself. (noun) One of the most remarkable figures to join the American labor movement was Mary Harris Jones. (adjective) Many people worked to piece together the puzzling facts. (adverb) Dependent Clauses A dependent clause is a group of words that contains a subject and verb but does not express a complete thought. A dependent clause cannot be a sentence. Whenever my cat hears thunder . . . Dependent markers are words added to the beginning of an independent clause that make it a dependent clause. (All of the words in the tables below are dependent markers.) Adjective Clauses Adjective clauses begin with the following dependent markers (relative pronouns or relative adverbs). that whose when where which who These clauses answer the questions what kind? and which one? Henry VIII was a king whose many wives fared badly. We gave the stray cat, which we found, a bowl of milk. Anyone who remains calm during a storm will probably be good in an emergency. Adverb Clauses Adverb clauses begin with the following dependent markers (subordinating conjunctions). after because since until while although before so that when as even though than whenever as if if though where as long as in order that unless wherever Adverb clauses answer the questions when? where? under what condition? and why? Before she gave the assignment, Miss Martin explained the method for review. Miss Martin explained the method for review before she gave the assignment. Noun Clauses Noun clauses frequently begin with the following dependent markers how when who why if where whoever that whether whom what which whomever whatever whichever whose as if how Than What Wherever Who why as long as if That Whatever Whether Whoever Noun clauses function as nouns. The brochure describes what a tourist can see in Kenya. Whoever is interested in the past will like the book Foxfire Dependent Markers after because in order that Though When Which Whom although before since Unless Whenever Whichever Whomever as even though so that Until Where While Whose We gave the stray cat, which we found, a bowl of milk. Before she gave the assignment, Ms. Martin explained the lesson for review. Ms. Martin explained the lesson for review before she gave the assignment. The brochure describes what a tourist can see in Kenya. Whoever is interested in the past will like the book Foxfire. Sentence Types Simple Sentences Simple sentences contain one or more subjects and one or more verbs. We won! Chippewa, Rice Lake, and Memorial lost. We ran, jumped, and played. Simple sentences may contain phrases. A simple sentence consists of a single independent clause. In the three-way tournament, we won! Compound Sentences Compound sentences contain two independent clauses joined by a coordination conjunction (for, nor, and, but, or, so, yet) or by a semicolon. We won, and they lost. We won; they lost. Complex Sentences Complex sentences contain an independent clause and one or more subordinate clauses. When the season ended, our coach bought the team dinner. Loose Loose sentences make complete sense if brought to a close before the actual ending because the subordinate elements come last. We reached Vancouver after we had endured a turbulent flight and some very scary experiences. Periodic Periodic sentences make sense only when the end of the sentence is reached because the subordinate elements come first. After we had endured a turbulent flight and some scary experiences, we reached Vancouver. Compound-complex Sentences Compound-complex sentences contain two or more independent clauses and one or more subordinate clauses. When the season ended, our coach bought the team dinner, and he presented an award to each player. Compound Subject A compound subject is two or more subjects that have the same verb and are joined by a conjunction such as and or or. Parsley, sage, dill, and rosemary grow in our garden. Compound Verb A compound verb is two or more verbs that have the same subject and are joined by a conjunction such as and or or. Brad Pitt signed autograph books, smiled at his fans, and then departed in a limousine. Parallel Structure Parallel structure refers to a grammatical or structural similarity between sentences or parts of a sentence. It involves an arrangement of words, phrases, clauses, and paragraphs so that elements of equal importance are equally developed and similarly phrased. Parallel words: The class analyzed, discussed, and questioned the new rules. Parallel phrases: Jane loves to swim in the ocean and to water ski at the lake. Parallel clauses: We wondered what was in the box, where it came from, who had sent it, and why it had not been unwrapped.