Download components of computer

CHAPTER # 01
FUNDAMENTALS, BASIC CONCEPT OF COMPUTER
COMPONENTS OF COMPUTER:
Computer components are classified into two groups, these are;


Hardware: The physical equipment in a computing environment such as the computer
and its peripheral devices (printer, speakers etc.)
Software: The set of instructions that operates various parts of the software. It is also
termed as computer program.
Hardware:
All computers have the following essential hardware components;
I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
Input
Output
Memory
Storage
Processor
I. Input device
An input device is any hardware device that sends data to the computer, without any input
devices, a computer would only be a display device and not allow users to interact with it, much
like a TV. In the picture to the right, is a Logitech trackball mouse and an example of an input
device. Below is a complete listing of all the different computer input devices that can be used on
a computer.
Types of input devices:
There are a lot of input devices available in the market, some of the important devices are;
1.
Barcode reader:
Barcodes are often used to help organize and index information or prices
about an object. Barcodes used by the U.S. postal service that helps speed
the delivery of mail is another perfect example of how a barcode could be
used. In the picture to the right, is an example of what a barcode for an
address may look like. A barcode reader or scanner, also known as a point
of sale (POS) scanner is a hardware device capable of reading a barcode and printing out the
details of the product or logging that product into a database. A perfect example of a barcode
AN EASY APPROACH TO COMPUTER AND ITS APPLICATION IN PHARMACY
CHAPTER # 01
FUNDAMENTALS, BASIC CONCEPT OF COMPUTER
reader is a super market barcode scanner that reads and logs the price of a product. In the
picture to the right, is an example of a Barcode reader from HP.
2.
Digital camera and Digital Camcorder:
A camera that stores the pictures or video it takes in electronic format instead of to film.
There are several features that make digital cameras a popular choice when compared to
film cameras. First, the feature often enjoyed the most is the LCD on the digital camera. This
display allows users to view photos or video after the picture or video has been taken, which
means if you take a picture and don't like the results, you can delete it; or if you do like the
picture, you can show it to other people. Another nice feature with digital cameras is the
ability to take dozens, sometimes hundreds of different pictures. In the picture to the right, is
a Casio QV-R62, a 6.0 Mega Pixel digital camera used to help illustrate what a digital
camera may look like. Digital cameras have become the camera solution for most users today
as the quality of the picture they take has greatly improved and as the price has decreased.
Some users may be hesitant in buying a digital camera because of the inability of getting
their pictures developed. However, there are several solutions in getting your digital pictures
developed. For example, there are numerous Internet companies capable of developing your
pictures and send you your pictures in the mail. In addition, many of the places that develop
your standard cameras film now have the ability to develop digital pictures if you bring them
your camera, memory stick, or pictures on CD.
3.
Finger (with touch-screen):
A monitor or other flat surface with a sensitive panel directly on the screen
that registers the touch of a finger as input. Instead of being touch-sensitive,
some touch screens also use beams across the screen to create a grid that is
interrupted by the presence of a finger near the screen. A touch screen
allows a user to interact with a device without a mouse or keyboard for
input and is often used in a public environment where the user may only
need to access general information, such as directions to a room in a
building. In the picture to the right, is an example of a smart phone with a
touch screen, this phone has no physical keyboard and all data is inputted
using a finger.
4.
Fingerprint scanner:
When referring to computers and security, a fingerprint refers to
any trace of information left by someone. Often, if someone has
gained unauthorized access to a computer or network, an
administrator or security agent may look for any fingerprints left by
the attacker, such as IP addresses, host names, etc. This can be
compared to a crime scene detective looking for fingerprints at a
crime scene. When referring to computer hardware, a fingerprint
scanner or fingerprint reader is a hardware device that verifies a
user or enters password information by scanning their finger. In the
AN EASY APPROACH TO COMPUTER AND ITS APPLICATION IN PHARMACY
CHAPTER # 01
FUNDAMENTALS, BASIC CONCEPT OF COMPUTER
picture to the right, is an example of a fingerprint scanner by Microsoft. Computers that do
not already include a fingerprint scanner can connect devices such as these to their computer
USB ports.
5.
Gamepad:
A gamepad is a peripheral device designed to be connected to a
computer or console gaming system. It has multiple buttons and
may have one or two mini joysticks. A gamepad is used for
playing video games of many types, including sports, firstperson shooters, role-playing, and others. In the picture to the
right, is an example of the XBOX360 controller for Windows
and what a Gamepad may look like. Gamepads is the primary
peripheral device used on console gaming systems like the
XBox360, PlayStation 3 and Nintendo WII. Some portable
gaming systems have a gamepad built into the gaming device
itself, like the Sony PSP.
6.
Joystick:
An input device that looks similar to a control device you would
find on an arcade game at your local arcades. A joystick allows an
individual to move an object in a game such as navigating a plane
in a flight simulator. In the picture to the right, is of the Logitech
Freedom 2.4 joystick and an example of what a Joystick may look
like.
7.
Paddle:
More commonly known as a game paddle or gamepad, a
paddle is an input device commonly used with games that may
contain various buttons used to steer and utilize different
options in a game. All console game systems utilize a paddle or
gamepad for control. In the picture to the right, is an example
of a game paddle used with the Atari 2600. The term paddle
may also be used to describe various handheld devices that are
capable of controlling a function on a computer or electronic
device.
8.
Graphics tablet:
Alternatively referred to as a drawing tablet and pen tablet, a
graphics tablet is a highly accurate hardware input device that
enables an artist to draw or sketch easier than they would be
able to do with a standard computer mouse. In the picture to the
right, is an example of a Pen Tablet from Wacom and a great
AN EASY APPROACH TO COMPUTER AND ITS APPLICATION IN PHARMACY
CHAPTER # 01
FUNDAMENTALS, BASIC CONCEPT OF COMPUTER
example of these devices.
9.
Keyboard:
One of the main input devices used on a computer, a PC's
keyboard looks very similar to the keyboards of electric
typewriters, with some additional keys. Below is a graphic
of the Saitek Gamers' keyboard with indicators pointing to
each of the major portions of the keyboard.
10.
Light gun and light pen scanner:
A light gun is a pointing input device that detects light using a photodiode in the gun barrel.
When the player of the game pulls the trigger on the gun, the
screen is blanked out for a fraction of a second, which allows
the photodiode to determine where the gun is pointed. Light
guns were most widely used with early console gaming systems
such as the NES Zapper light gun, as shown in the picture to the
right. Using this gun the player could play games where they
were required to point the gun at the screen and shoot targets, such as ducks in the popular
Duck Hunt game.
11.
Microphone (using speech recognition):
Sometimes abbreviated as mic, a microphone is a hardware peripheral
originally invented by Emile Berliner in 1877 that allows computer users
to input audio into their computers. In the picture to the right, is an
example of a USB headset from Logitech with a microphone. A popular
solution for computer gaming.
12.
MIDI keyboard:
Short for Musical Instrument Digital Interface, MIDI is a standard for digitally
representing and transmitting sounds that was first developed in the 1980s. The MIDI sound
is played back through the hardware device or computer either through a synthesized audio
sound or a waveform stored on the hardware device or computer. The quality of how MIDI
sounds when played back by the hardware device or computer
depends upon that device's capability. Many older computer sound
cards will have a MIDI port, as shown in the top right picture. This
port allows musical instrument devices to be connected to the
computer, such as a MIDI keyboard or a synthesizer. Before
connecting any of these devices to the computer, you will need to
purchase a separate cable, which takes the MIDI/Game port
connection into the standard 5-pin DIN midi connector or a USB to
AN EASY APPROACH TO COMPUTER AND ITS APPLICATION IN PHARMACY
CHAPTER # 01
FUNDAMENTALS, BASIC CONCEPT OF COMPUTER
MIDI converter. If you do not have a MIDI port, the most common way today to connect a
MIDI device to a computer is to use a USB to MIDI port cable.
13.
MICR:
Short for Magnetic-Ink Character Recognition, MICR is a font capable of recognition
using magnetically charged ink. Computers equipped with the right hardware and software
can print or read the character printed in such ink. MICR font is commonly used to print
checks, deposit slips, mortgage coupons, etc. There are several MICR fonts, the MICR E13B font is used in the Canada, Panama, Puerto Rico, UK, and the United States. The MICR
CRC-7 was created according to the ISO standards and is a font used in France, Mexico,
Spain, and most other Spanish speaking countries.
14.
Mouse:
A hardware input device that was invented by Douglas Engelbart in 1963, who at the time
was working at the Stanford Research Institute, which
was a think tank sponsored by Stanford University. The
mouse allows an individual to control a pointer in a
graphical user interface (GUI). Utilizing a mouse a user
has the ability to perform various functions such as
opening a program or file and does not require the user
to memorize commands, like those used in a text-based
command line environment such as MS-DOS. In the
picture to the right, is a picture of a Microsoft IntelliMouse and is an example of what a
computer mouse may look like. The Mouse was originally referred to as an X-Y Position
Indicator for a Display System. Xerox later applied the mouse to its revolutionary Alto
computer system in 1973. However, because of Alto's unfortunate success, it was first widely
used in the Apple Lisa comp
15.
touchpad:
Alternatively referred to as a glidepoint, pressure sensitive tablet, or
trackpad, a touchpad is an input device found on the majority of
portable computers, and now also available with some external
keyboards, that allow you to move the mouse cursor without the need
of an external mouse. A touchpad is operated by using your finger and
dragging it across a flat surface; as you move your finger on the
surface, the mouse cursor will move in that same direction, and like
most computer mice, the touchpad also has two buttons below the
touch surface that enables you to click like a standard mouse.
16.
Optical Mark Reader (OMR):
Short for Optical Mark Reading or Optical Mark Readers, OMR is a system that gathers
information by using a hardware device that detects a reflection or an absence of reflection
AN EASY APPROACH TO COMPUTER AND ITS APPLICATION IN PHARMACY
CHAPTER # 01
FUNDAMENTALS, BASIC CONCEPT OF COMPUTER
from a card or piece of paper. OMR enables the processing of hundreds or thousands of
documents every hour automatically.
17.
Punch card reader:
Early method of data storage used with early computers. Punch cards
also known as Hollerith cards and IBM cards are paper cards
containing several punched holes that where originally punched by
hand and later by computers that represents data. These cards allowed
companies to store information and be able to access that information
by entering the card through the computer. In the picture to the right, is
an example of what a punch card looks like.
18.
Remote:
A hardware device that allows a user to control a device or object in another
location. For example, the TV remote allows a person to change the channel,
volume, or turn on and off the TV without having to get up and press the buttons
on the front of the TV. In the picture to the right, is an example of a remote, the
Harmony One Universal Remote from Logitech.
19.
Scanner:
Hardware input device that allows a user to take an image or text and
convert it into a digital file, allowing the computer to read or display the
scanned object. A scanner is commonly connected to a computer USB,
Firewire, Parallel, or SCSI port. In the picture to the right, is an example
of a flatbed photo scanner, the Epson V300. Other scanners include:
sheetfed scanner, which is a scanner that scans paper fed into it, handheld scanner, which
is a scanner that is held and drag over a page to scan it, and a card scanner, which is a small
scanner capable of scanning business cards.
20.
Video capture device:
Internal or external device that connects from the computer or device to
a video camera or similar device capable of capturing a video signal.
The video capture device is then capable of taking that video signal and
converting it to a stored video format, allowing you to store, modify and
show video on a computer. In the picture to the right, is an example of
an external video capture device from Geniatech that connects your
digital camcorder to your computer using USB. In addition to this type of video capture
device, there are also internal video capture devices that are internal cards that can be
installed into your computer.
AN EASY APPROACH TO COMPUTER AND ITS APPLICATION IN PHARMACY
CHAPTER # 01
21.
FUNDAMENTALS, BASIC CONCEPT OF COMPUTER
Webcam:
A webcam is a hardware camera connected to a computer that allows
anyone connected to the Internet to view either still pictures or motion
video of a user or other object. In the picture to the right, is a Logitech
QuickCam Express and an example of what a webcam may look like.
Today, most webcams are either embedded into the display with laptop
computers or connected to the USB or Firewire port on the computer.
II.
Output Device
Any device that outputs information from a computer is called, not surprisingly, an output
device. Since most information from a computer is output in either a visual or auditory format,
the most common output devices are the monitor and speakers. These two devices provide
instant feedback to the user's input, such as displaying characters as they are typed or playing a
song selected from a playlist.
An output device is any piece of computer hardware equipment used to communicate the results
of data processing carried out by an information processing system (such as a computer) to the
outside world. While monitors and speakers are the most common output devices, there are many
others. Some examples include headphones, printers, projectors, lighting control systems, audio
recording devices, and robotic machines. A computer without an output device connected to it is
pretty useless, since the output is what we interact with.
Some of the important output device are;
1.
Speakers:
Computer speakers, or multimedia speakers, are speakers
external to a computer, that disable the lower fidelity built-in
speaker. They often have a low-power internal amplifier.
Computer speakers range widely in quality and in price. The
computer speakers typically packaged with computer systems
are small, plastic, and have mediocre sound quality. Some
computer speakers have equalization features such as bass and
treble controls.
2.
Headphones:
Headphones are a pair of small loudspeakers which are
designed to be held in place close to a user's ears. Headphones
have wires which allow them to be connected to a signal source
such as an audio amplifier, radio, CD player, or portable media
player. They are also known as stereophones or, colloquially,
cans. The in-ear versions are known as earphones or earbuds.
In the context of telecommunication, the term headset is used to
AN EASY APPROACH TO COMPUTER AND ITS APPLICATION IN PHARMACY
CHAPTER # 01
FUNDAMENTALS, BASIC CONCEPT OF COMPUTER
describe a combination of headphone and microphone.
3.
Screen (Monitor):
A monitor or display (also called screen or visual display unit) is an
electronic visual display for computers. The monitor comprises the
display device, circuitry, and an enclosure. The display device in modern
monitors is typically a thin film transistor liquid crystal display (TFTLCD) thin panel, while older monitors use a cathode ray tube about as deep as the screen
size.
4.
Printer:
a printer is a peripheral which produces a text or graphics of documents stored in electronic
form, usually on physical print media such as paper or transparencies. Many printers are
primarily used as local peripherals, and are attached by a printer cable or, in most new
printers, a USB cable to a computer which serves as a document source. Some printers,
commonly known as network printers, have built-in network interfaces, typically wireless or
Ethernet based, and can serve as a hard copy device for any user on the network. Individual
printers are often designed to support both local and network connected users at the same
time. In addition, a few modern printers can directly interface to electronic media such as
memory cards, or to image capture devices such as digital cameras and scanners; some
printers are combined with scanners or fax machines in a single unit, and can function as
photocopiers. Printers that include non-printing features are sometimes called multifunction
printers (MFP), multi-function devices (MFD), or all-in-one (AIO) printers. Most MFPs
include printing, scanning, and copying among their many features.
5.
Plotters:
A plotter is a special-purpose output device that draws images with ink pens. That is, the
plotter is a graphics printer for making sophisticated graphs, charts, maps, and threedimensional graphics as well as high-quality colored documents. It can also produce larger
size of documents. Plotters require data in a vector graphics format that can produce images
with a series of lines. There are two main types of plotters:


6.
Drum Plotter: This is a plotter that has a drum. A paper wraps the drum that rotates to
produce plots. Pens in a drum plotter move across the paper while the drum is turning. A
drum plotter is usually used to produce smaller drawings.
Flatbed Plotter: This is a plotter that has a bed. This is also called a table plotter. The
plotter draws graphics on the paper placed on the bed. There are several size of beds. This
plotter is usually used for producing large drawings.
Modem:
Another form of the output device is a modem. A modem is short for "Modulator DE
Modulator." Modulation is the process of converting from digital to analog. Demodulation
is the process of converting from analog to digital. The modem enables digital
AN EASY APPROACH TO COMPUTER AND ITS APPLICATION IN PHARMACY
CHAPTER # 01
FUNDAMENTALS, BASIC CONCEPT OF COMPUTER
microcomputers to send output through analog telephone lines. Both voice and data can be
carried over through the modem. The modem is not only an output device but also an input
device that receives data and voice through a communication channel
3. MEMORY:
Definition:
In computing, memory refers to the physical devices used to store programs (sequences of
instructions) or data (e.g. program state information) on a temporary or permanent basis for use
in a computer or other digital electronic device.
History:
In the early 1940s, memory technology mostly permitted a capacity of a few bytes. The first
electronic programmable digital computer, the ENIAC, using thousands of octal-base radio
vacuum tubes, could perform simple calculations involving 20 numbers of ten decimal digits
which were held in the vacuum tube accumulators.
The next significant advance in computer memory was with acoustic delay line memory
developed by J. Presper Eckert in the early 1940s. Through the construction of a glass tube filled
with mercury and plugged at each end with a quartz crystal, delay lines could store bits of
information within the quartz and transfer it through sound waves propagating through mercury.
Delay line memory would be limited to a capacity of up to a few hundred thousand bits to remain
efficient. Two alternatives to the delay line, the Williams tube and Selectron tube, were
developed in 1946, both using electron beams in glass tubes as means of storage. Using cathode
ray tubes, Fred Williams would invent the Williams tube, which would be the first random
access computer memory. The Williams tube would prove to be advantageous to the Selectron
tube because of its greater capacity (the Selectron was limited to 256 bits, while the Williams
tube could store thousands) and being less expensive. The Williams tube would nevertheless
prove to be frustratingly sensitive to environmental disturbances.
Efforts began in the late 1940s to find non-volatile memory. Jay Forrester, Jan A. Rajchman and
An Wang would be credited with the development of magnetic core memory, which would allow
for recall of memory after power loss. Magnetic core memory would become the dominant form
of memory until the development of transistor based memory in the late 1960s.
Explanation:
The term primary memory is used for the information in physical systems which are fast (i.e.
RAM), as a distinction from secondary memory, which are physical devices for program and
data storage which are slow to access but offer higher memory capacity. Primary memory stored
on secondary memory is called "virtual memory".
AN EASY APPROACH TO COMPUTER AND ITS APPLICATION IN PHARMACY
CHAPTER # 01
FUNDAMENTALS, BASIC CONCEPT OF COMPUTER
The term "storage" is often (but not always) used in
separate computers of traditional secondary memory
such as tape, magnetic disks and optical discs (CDROM and DVD-ROM). The term "memory" is often
(but not always) associated with addressable
semiconductor memory, i.e. integrated circuits
consisting of silicon-based transistors, used for example
as primary memory but also other purposes in
computers and other digital electronic devices. The
semiconductor memory is organized into memory cells
or bistable flip-flops, each storing one binary bit (0 or
1). The memory cells are grouped into words of fix word length, for example 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32,
64 or 128 bit. Each word can be accessed by a binary address of N bit, making it possible to store
2 raised by N words in the memory. The term "memory" when used to reference computers will
always be referring to Random Access Memory or RAM.
Types of memory:
There are two main types of semiconductor memory: volatile and non-volatile. Examples of nonvolatile memory are flash memory (sometimes used as secondary, sometimes primary computer
memory) and ROM/PROM/EPROM/EEPROM memory (used for firmware such as boot
programs). Examples of volatile memory are primary memory (typically dynamic RAM,
DRAM), and fast CPU cache memory (typically static RAM, SRAM, which is fast but energyconsuming and offer lower memory capacity per area unit than DRAM) .
a). Volatile memory:
Volatile memory is computer memory that requires power to maintain the stored information.
Most modern semiconductor volatile memory is either Static RAM (see SRAM) or dynamic
RAM (see DRAM). SRAM retains its contents as long as the power is connected and is easy to
interface to but uses six transistors per bit. Dynamic RAM is more complicated to interface to
and control and needs regular refresh cycles to prevent its contents being lost. However, DRAM
uses only one transistor and a capacitor per bit, allowing it to reach much higher densities and,
with more bits on a memory chip, be much cheaper per bit. SRAM is not worthwhile for desktop
system memory, where DRAM dominates, but is used for their cache memories. SRAM is
commonplace in small embedded systems, which might only need tens of kilobytes or less.
Forthcoming volatile memory technologies that hope to replace or compete with SRAM and
DRAM include Z-RAM, TTRAM, A-RAM and ETA RAM.

Random access memory (RAM) is a form of computer data storage. Today, it takes the
form of integrated circuits that allow stored data to be accessed in any order with a worst
case performance of constant time. Strictly speaking, modern types of DRAM are not
random access, as data is read in bursts, although the name DRAM / RAM has stuck.
However, many types of SRAM, ROM, OTP, and NOR flash are still random access
even in a strict sense. RAM is often associated with volatile types of memory (such as
DRAM memory modules), where its stored information is lost if the power is removed.
AN EASY APPROACH TO COMPUTER AND ITS APPLICATION IN PHARMACY
CHAPTER # 01
FUNDAMENTALS, BASIC CONCEPT OF COMPUTER
Many other types of non-volatile memory are RAM as well, including most types of
ROM and a type of flash memory called NOR-Flash. The first RAM modules to come
into the market were created in 1951 and were sold until the late 1960s and early 1970s.
b). Non-volatile memory:
Non-volatile memory is computer memory that can retain the stored information even when not
powered. Examples of non-volatile memory include read-only memory (see ROM), flash
memory, most types of magnetic computer storage devices (e.g. hard disks, floppy discs and
magnetic tape), optical discs, and early computer storage methods such as paper tape and
punched cards. Forthcoming non-volatile memory technologies include FeRAM, CBRAM,
PRAM, SONOS, RRAM, Racetrack memory, NRAM and Millipede.


4.
Read-only memory (ROM) is a class of storage medium used in computers and other
electronic devices. Data stored in ROM cannot be modified, or can be modified only
slowly or with difficulty, so it is mainly used to distribute firmware (software that is very
closely tied to specific hardware, and unlikely to need frequent updates). In its strictest
sense, ROM refers only to mask ROM (the oldest type of solid state ROM), which is
fabricated with the desired data permanently stored in it, and thus can never be modified.
Despite the simplicity, speed and economies of scale of mask ROM, fieldprogrammability often make reprogrammable memories more flexible and inexpensive.
As of 2007, actual ROM circuitry is therefore mainly used for applications such as
microcode, and similar structures, on various kinds of processors.
Other types of non-volatile memory such as erasable programmable read only memory
(EPROM) and electrically erasable programmable read-only memory (EEPROM or Flash
ROM) are sometimes referred to, in an abbreviated way, as "read-only memory" (ROM);
although these types of memory can be erased and re-programmed multiple times,
writing to this memory takes longer and may require different procedures than reading
the memory. When used in this less precise way, "ROM" indicates a non-volatile
memory which serves functions typically provided by mask ROM, such as storage of
program code and nonvolatile data.
SECONDARY STORAGE DEVICE:
Definition:
Alternatively referred to as external memory and auxiliary storage, secondary storage is a
storage medium that holds information until it is deleted or overwritten regardless if the
computer has power.
Explanation:
Secondary storage (also known as external memory or auxiliary storage), differs from primary
storage in that it is not directly accessible by the CPU. The computer usually uses its input/output
channels to access secondary storage and transfers the desired data using intermediate area in
primary storage. Secondary storage does not lose the data when the device is powered down—it
AN EASY APPROACH TO COMPUTER AND ITS APPLICATION IN PHARMACY
CHAPTER # 01
FUNDAMENTALS, BASIC CONCEPT OF COMPUTER
is non-volatile. Per unit, it is typically also two orders of magnitude less expensive than primary
storage. Consequently, modern computer systems typically have two orders of magnitude more
secondary storage than primary storage and data are kept for a longer time there.
The secondary storage is often formatted according to a file system format, which provides the
abstraction necessary to organize data into files and directories, providing also additional
information (called metadata) describing the owner of a certain file, the access time, the access
permissions, and other information.
Most computer operating systems use the concept of virtual memory, allowing utilization of
more primary storage capacity than is physically available in the system. As the primary memory
fills up, the system moves the least-used chunks (pages) to secondary storage devices (to a swap
file or page file), retrieving them later when they are needed. As more of these retrievals from
slower secondary storage are necessary, the more the overall system performance is degraded. In
modern computers, hard disk drives and CD ROM are usually used as secondary storage. Some
other examples of secondary storage technologies are: flash memory (e.g. USB flash drives or
keys), floppy disks, magnetic tape, paper tape, punched cards, standalone RAM disks, and
Iomega Zip drives. Some of them are discussed here, these are;


Hard Disks: In modern computers, hard disk drives are usually used as secondary
storage. The time taken to access a given byte of information
stored on a hard disk is typically a few thousandths of a
second, or milliseconds. By contrast, the time taken to access
a given byte of information stored in random access memory
is measured in billionths of a second, or nanoseconds. This
illustrates the significant access-time difference which
distinguishes solid-state memory from rotating magnetic
storage devices: hard disks are typically about a million
times slower than memory.
A hard disk is fixed inside the cabinet of CPU (Central Processing Unit). It is made up of
many rigid metal platters coated to store data magnetically. The hard disk rotates while
recording data. This rotation speed is measured in the unit of revolutions per minute
(rpm). The normal speed of hard disks is 3600revolutions per second. The read/write
head of the hard disks moves across its surface. The storage capacity of the hard disks is
many times more than the floppy disks. The normal storage capacity of hard disks
installed inside the Pentium-IV machines now a day is 40 Gigabytes. Due to large storage
capacity it is preferred to store all important data into the hard disks of the computers.
The data stored in the hard disks are retrieved faster as compared to the floppy disks as
they are installed inside the computers.
CD-ROM (compact disk read only memory):
Compact Disks most popularly known as CDs are
the most attractive storage device these days.
They are Read only memory device as without the
CD writers we cannot store our files and folders
on them. The diameter of the CD ranges from 10
cms to 30 ms. A typical CD is of 13 cm diameter.
AN EASY APPROACH TO COMPUTER AND ITS APPLICATION IN PHARMACY
CHAPTER # 01

FUNDAMENTALS, BASIC CONCEPT OF COMPUTER
One CD can store 600 MB to 750 MB data on it. Laser reads the normally used CDs. So
once the data is stored into the CD ROM it cannot be erased. Recently writable CDs are
also introduced in the market but they are not so common. The read/write speed of a CDROM is average access tune is 125 milliseconds. CD comprises of a transparent thin
layer of aluminium covering the pitted surface for reflectivity. The data may be in the
form of text, image, sound, video clips, animated movies or their combinations. The CD
Rom drive are mostly used to keep back ups & access the data for reading. Now a days
the audio CDs are used for listening music albums at home & the video CDs are used to
watch movies. The reception of the both forms is excellent. When data reside on disk,
block Rotating optical storage devices, such as CD and DVD drives, have even longer
access times. With disk drives, once the disk read/write head reaches the proper
placement and the data of interest rotates under it, subsequent data on the track are very
fast to access. As a result, in order to hide the initial seek time and rotational latency, data
are transferred to and from disks in large contiguous blocks.
Floppy Disks: A floppy disk is a secondary storage device. It is a circular piece of plastic
material coated with particles, which are magnetized. This thin plastic sheet is protected
from outside by a plastic cover to prevent the sensitive data stored on them. The
commonly used floppy disks are of 3.5 ” diameter. Floppies are used to store data and
transfer them from one computer to another. Due to their size and portability they are the
most popular storage mediums in offices and at homes. The data inside the floppies are
stored in tracks and sectors. The entire floppy is divided into circular segments called
tracks. Each track is given a unique number. The outermost track is referred as 0 and the
track inner to them is 1 and so on. Each track is further divided into segments called
sectors. The number of segments in each track has the same capacity. In a typical 3.5”
floppy disk the number of tracks and sectors and their storage capacity is denoted below:
1.44 MB = 1.474560 bytes = 512 bytes X 2 sides = 80 tracks X 18
Thus these floppy disks are called high-density disks as they can hold 1.44 MB data. The
outer plastic cover has read / write hole covered by a metal sheet. This metal cover
automatically opens when the floppy is inserted inside the floppy disk drive. If we wish
to protect our floppy and don’t want anyone to write his or her data then this read/write
notch on one edge of the floppy disk should be closed.
After this the floppy becomes write protected.
The following guidelines should be taken care off while
handling with floppy disks:
a) Magnetized items should be kept away from them.
b) Never bend or fold them.
c) The touching of its surface must be avoided.
d) The floppies should not be heaped/stacked one over
the other.
e) Heavy objects should not be kept on the floppies.
f) Floppies should be kept away from heat & moisture.
g) Floppies must be kept in cases to prevent them from dust.
h) Very often formatting of floppies should be avoided.
AN EASY APPROACH TO COMPUTER AND ITS APPLICATION IN PHARMACY
CHAPTER # 01
FUNDAMENTALS, BASIC CONCEPT OF COMPUTER
5. PROCESSOR:
Processor is the engine that processes the instructions given by the user.
Processor or Processing unit may refer to:











Central processing unit (CPU), an electronic circuit which executes computer programs,
containing a processing unit and a control unit. It is discussed below in detail.
Microprocessor, a CPU on one silicon chip as part of a microcomputer. It is discussed
below in detail.
Graphics processing unit (GPU / VPU), a dedicated graphics rendering device for a
personal computer or game console
Physics processing unit (PPU), a dedicated microprocessor designed to handle the
calculations of physics
Digital signal processor, a specialized microprocessor designed specifically for digital
signal processing
Network processor, a microprocessor specifically targeted at the networking application
domain
Front end processor, a helper processor for communication between a host computer and
other devices
Coprocessor : Floating point unit
Data processor, a system that translates or converts between different data formats
Word processor, a computer application used for the production of printable material
Audio processor, used in studios and radio stations
CPU and microprocessor are discussed in detail here;
Central processing unit (CPU):
Definition:
The central processing unit (CPU, occasionally central processor unit) is the hardware within
a computer system which carries out the instructions of a computer program by performing the
basic arithmetical, logical, and input/output operations of the system.
Explanation:
The CPU plays a role somewhat analogous to the brain in the computer. The term has been in
use in the computer industry at least since the early 1960s.
On large machines, CPUs require one or more printed circuit boards. On personal computers and
small workstations, the CPU is housed in a single silicon chip called a microprocessor. Since the
1970s the microprocessor class of CPUs has almost completely overtaken all other CPU
implementations. Modern CPUs are large scale integrated circuits in packages typically less than
AN EASY APPROACH TO COMPUTER AND ITS APPLICATION IN PHARMACY
CHAPTER # 01
FUNDAMENTALS, BASIC CONCEPT OF COMPUTER
four centimeters square, with hundreds of connecting pins. Not all computational systems rely on
a central processing unit. An array processor or vector processor has multiple parallel computing
elements, with no one unit considered the "center". In the distributed computing model, problems
are solved by a distributed interconnected set of processors.
Components of CPU:
The components of CPU are;
1. The Control Unit: It extracts instructions from memory and decodes
and executes them, calling on the ALU when necessary. It is
responsible for directing and coordinating most of the computer system
activities. It does not execute instructions by itself. It tells other
parts of the computer system what to do. It determines the
movement of electronic signals between the main memory and
arithmetic logic unit as well as the control signals between the
CPU and input/output devices.
2. Arithmetic Logic Unit: The arithmetic logic unit (ALU),
performs all the arithmetic and logical functions i.e. addition,
subtraction, multiplication, division and certain comparisons.
These comparisons include greater than, less than, equals to etc.
The ALU controls the speed of calculations. operations.
The parts of the CPU are usually connected by an electronic
component referred to as a Bus, which acts as an electronic highway
between them. The CPU has special purpose storage devices called registers,
helps in storing data and instructions.
Block diagram of CPU
3. Registers: It is a special temporary storage location within the CPU. Registers quickly, accept,
store and transfer data and instructions that are being used immediately (main memory hold data
that will be used shortly, secondary storage holds data that will be used later). To execute an
instruction, the control unit of the CPU retrieves it from main memory and places it onto a
register. The typical operations that take place in the processing of instruction are part of the
instruction cycle or execution cycle. The instruction cycle refers to the retrieval of the instruction
from main memory and its subsequence at decoding. The process of alerting the circuits in CPU
to perform the specified operation. The time it takes to go through the instruction cycle is
referred to as I-time.
4. Bus: The term Bus refers to an electrical pathway through which bits are transmitted between
the various computer components. Depending on the design of the system, several types of buses
may be present. The most important one is the data bus, which carries the data through out the
central processing unit. The wider the data bus, the more data it can carry at one time and thus
the greater the processing speed of the computer.
AN EASY APPROACH TO COMPUTER AND ITS APPLICATION IN PHARMACY
CHAPTER # 01
FUNDAMENTALS, BASIC CONCEPT OF COMPUTER
Microprocessors:
Definition:
A microprocessor incorporates the functions of a computer's central processing unit (CPU) on a
single integrated circuit (IC), or at most a few integrated circuits.
History:
The advent of low-cost computers on integrated circuits has transformed modern society.
General-purpose microprocessors in personal computers are used for computation, text editing,
multimedia display, and communication over the Internet. Many more microprocessors are part
of embedded systems, providing digital control of a myriad of objects from appliances to
automobiles to cellular phones and industrial process control. During the 1960s, computer
processors were constructed out of small and medium-scale ICs each containing from tens to a
few hundred transistors. For each computer built, all of these had to be placed and soldered onto
printed circuit boards, and often multiple boards would have to be interconnected in a chassis.
The large number of discrete logic gates used more electrical power and therefore, produced
more heat than a more integrated design with fewer ICs. The distance that signals had to travel
between ICs on the boards limited the speed at which a computer could operate.
The integration of a whole CPU onto a single chip or on a few chips greatly reduced the cost of
processing power. The integrated circuit processor was produced in large numbers by highly
automated processes, so unit cost was low. Single-chip processors increase reliability as there
were many fewer electrical connections to fail.
The first microprocessors emerged in the early 1970s and were used for electronic calculators,
using binary-coded decimal (BCD) arithmetic on 4-bit words. Other embedded uses of 4-bit and
8-bit microprocessors, such as terminals, printers, various kinds of automation etc., followed
soon after. Affordable 8-bit (1 byte) microprocessors with 16-bit addressing also led to the first
general-purpose microcomputers from the mid-1970s on. Since the early 1970s, the increase in
capacity of microprocessors has followed Moore's law; this originally suggested that the number
of transistors that can be fitted onto a chip doubles every year, though Moore later refined the
period to two years.
Explanation:
It is a multipurpose, programmable device that accepts digital data as
input, processes it according to instructions stored in its memory, and
provides results as output. It is an example of sequential digital logic, as
it has internal memory. Microprocessors operate on numbers and
symbols represented in the binary numeral system. The key element of
all computers, providing the mathematical and decision making ability
AN EASY APPROACH TO COMPUTER AND ITS APPLICATION IN PHARMACY
CHAPTER # 01
FUNDAMENTALS, BASIC CONCEPT OF COMPUTER
Current state-of-the-art microprocessors (Pentium) contain complex circuits consisting of tens of
millions of transistors. They operate at ultra-fast speeds, doing over a billion operations every
second. It is made up from a semiconductor, Silicon.
Microprocessors are powerful pieces of hardware, but not much useful on their own. Just as the
human brain needs hands, feet, eyes, ears, mouth to be useful; so does the microprocessor. A
microprocessor system is microprocessor plus all the components it requires to do a certain task.
A microcomputer is an example of a microprocessor system. Micro-controllers are another type
of microprocessor systems. They are generally not that powerful, cost a few dollars a piece, and
are found embedded in video games, VCRs, microwave ovens, printers, autos, etc. They are a
complete computer on a chip containing direct input and output capability and memory along
with the microprocessor on a single chip. Many times they contain other specialized applicationspecific components as well.
More than 90% of the microprocessors/micro-controllers manufactured are used in embedded
computing applications. In 2000 alone, 365 million microprocessors and 6.4 billion microcontrollers were manufactured
Modern super-fast microprocessors can process a huge amount of data in a short duration. They
require quick access to data to maximize their performance. If they don’t receive the data that
they require, they literally stop and wait, this results in reduced performance and wasted power.
Current microprocessors can process an instruction in about a sec. Time required for fetching
data from main memory (RAM) is of the order of 100 sec.
This problem can be solved by making the main memory faster. The 1 ns memory is extremely
expensive as compared the currently popular 100-ns memory. Another solution is that , in
addition to the relatively slow main memory, put a small amount of ultra-fast RAM right next to
the microprocessor on the same chip and make sure that frequently used data and instructions
resides in that ultra-fast memory.
The computing capability of a microprocessor can be enhanced in many different ways:





By increasing the clock frequency.
By increasing the word-width.
By having a more effective caching algorithm and the right cache size.
By adding more functional units (e.g. ALU’s, FPU’s, Vector/SIMD units, etc.).
Improving the architecture
On-chip cache memory: That small amount of memory located on the same chip as the
microprocessor is called On-Chip Cache Memory. The microprocessor stores a copy of
frequently used data and instructions in its cache memory. When the microprocessor desires to
look at a piece of data, it checks in the cache first. If it is not there, only then the microprocessor
asks for the same from the main memory. The small size and proximity to the microprocessor
makes access times short, resulting in a boost in performance (it is easy to find things in a small
box placed next to you). Microprocessors predict what data will be required for future
calculations and pre-fetches that data and places it in the cache so that it is available immediately
when the need arises. The speed advantage of cache memory is greatly dependent on the
algorithm used for deciding about what to put in cache or not.
AN EASY APPROACH TO COMPUTER AND ITS APPLICATION IN PHARMACY
CHAPTER # 01
FUNDAMENTALS, BASIC CONCEPT OF COMPUTER
Parts of microprocessor:
Microprocessor parts are discussed here under in detail, these are;
a) Bus interface unit: It receives instructions & data from main memory. Instructions are
then sent to the instruction cache, data to the data cache. It also receives the processed
data and sends it to the main memory
b) Instruction unit: This unit receives the programming instructions and decodes them into
a form that is understandable by the processing units, i.e. the ALU or FPU. Then, it
passes on the decoded instruction to the ALU or FPU.
c) Arithmetic and logic unit: It is also known as the “Integer Unit”. It performs whole
number math calculations (subtract, multiply, divide, etc) comparisons (is greater than, is
smaller than, etc.) and logical operations (NOT, OR, AND, etc). The new breed of
popular microprocessors have not one but two almost identical ALU’s that can do
calculations simultaneously, doubling the capability.
d) Floating point unit: It is also known as the “Numeric Unit”. It performs calculations that
involve numbers represented in the scientific notation (also known as floating-point
numbers). This notation can represent extremely small and extremely large numbers in a
compact form. Floating-point calculations are required for doing graphics, engineering
and scientific work. The ALU can do these calculations as well, but will do them very
slowly.
e) Registers: Both ALU & FPU have a very small amount of super-fast private memory
placed right next to them for their exclusive use. These are called registers. The ALU &
FPU store intermediate and final results from their calculations in these registers. It
processed data goes back to the data cache and then to main memory from these registers.
f) Control unit: It is the brain of the microprocessor. Manages the whole microprocessor.
Tasks include fetching instructions & data, storing data, managing input/output devices.
Flow sheet diagram showing the parts of microprocessor and how it works.
AN EASY APPROACH TO COMPUTER AND ITS APPLICATION IN PHARMACY
CHAPTER # 01
FUNDAMENTALS, BASIC CONCEPT OF COMPUTER
Language of microprocessor:
The set of machine instructions that a microprocessor recognizes and can execute, the only
language microprocessor knows. An instruction set includes low-level, a single step-at-a-time
instructions, such as add, subtract, multiply, and divide. Each microprocessor family has its
unique instruction set. Bigger instruction-sets mean more complex chips (higher costs, reduced
efficiency), but shorter programs.
Ist microprocessor Intel 4004:
The 1st microprocessor was Intel 4004. It was introduced 1971. It has 2250 transistors. Its
frequency is 108 kHz, 60,000 ops/sec. It has 16 pins, while 10-micron process. It is as powerful
as the ENIAC which had 18000 tubes and occupied a large room. It was used in calculators. Its
cost was less than $100.
A Japanese calculator manufacturer “Busicom” wanted Intel to develop 16 separate IC’s for a
line of new calculators. Intel, at that point in time known only as a memory manufacturer, was
quite small and did not have the resources to do all 16 chips. Ted Hoff came up with the idea of
doing all 16 on a single chip. Later, Intel realized that the 4004 could have other uses as well.
Currently Popular – Intel Pentium 4 (2.2GHz):
It was introduced in December 2001. It contains 55 million transistors. It has 32-bit word size. It
has 2 ALU’s, each working at 4.4GHz. It have 128-bit FPU while 0.13 micron process. It is used
in PC’s and low-end workstations It costs around $600.
Applications of microprocessors:
Microprocessors are a mass storage device. They are the advanced form of computers. They are
also called as microcomputers. The impact of microprocessor in different lures of fields is
significant. The availability of low cost, low power and small weight , computing capability
makes it useful in different applications. Now a days , a microprocessor based systems are used
in instructions, automatic testing product, speed control of motors , traffic light control , light
control of furnaces etc. Some of the important areas are mentioned below :
1. Instrumentation: it is very useful in the field of instrumentation. Frequency counters,
function generators, frequency synthesizers, spectrum analyses and many other
instruments are available, when microprocessors are used as controller. It is also used in
medical instrumentation.
2. Control: Microprocessor based controllers are available in home appliances, such as
microwave oven, washing machine etc, microprocessors are being used in controlling
various parameters like speed, pressure, temperature etc. These are used with the help of
suitable transduction.
3. Communication : Microprocessors are being used in a wide range of communication
equipments. In telephone industry, these are used in digital telephone sets. Telephone
exchanges and modem etc. The use of microprocessor in television, satellite
AN EASY APPROACH TO COMPUTER AND ITS APPLICATION IN PHARMACY
CHAPTER # 01
FUNDAMENTALS, BASIC CONCEPT OF COMPUTER
communication have made teleconferencing possible. Railway reservation and air
reservation system also uses this technology. LAN and WAN for communication of
vertical information through computer network.
4. Office Automation and Publication: Microprocessor based micro computer with
software packages has changed the office environment. Microprocessors based systems
are being used for word processing, spread sheet operations, storage etc. The
microprocessor has revolutionize the publication technology.
5. Consumer: The use of microprocessor in toys, entertainment equipment and home
applications is making them more entertaining and full of features. The use of
microprocessors is more widespread and popular.
'MOORE'S LAW'
In 1965, one of the founders of Intel “Gordon Moore” predicted that the number of transistors
per square inch on integrated circuits had doubled every year since their invention. Moore’s law
predicts that this trend will continue into the foreseeable future. Although the pace has slowed,
the number of transistors per square inch has since doubled approximately every 18 months. This
is used as the current definition of Moore's law.
INTRODUCTION TO BINARY NUMBERS
In the decimal number system we use the digits 0, 1, … 9 to write any number. In binary (bi
means two) number system we use the first two digits only: 1 and 0. In exactly the same way that
you operate on decimal numbers, you can add, subtract, multiply, divide… binary numbers as
well.
At first it might seem that using only two digits will not have any practical use. However
knowing that one of the most fundamental components in electronics is the switch which, at any
time, can be in one of two states that may be called “1” for “ON” and “0” for “OFF”, we start to
see the advantage of using binary numbers in electronic calculators and computers.
AN EASY APPROACH TO COMPUTER AND ITS APPLICATION IN PHARMACY
CHAPTER # 01
FUNDAMENTALS, BASIC CONCEPT OF COMPUTER
In expanded form, the decimal number 253 is written as follows:
253 = 2×102 + 5×101 + 3×100
The decimal system is also called the base-10 system. We can use a base-2 system (use only 0
and 1) to write 253 as follows:
253 = 1×27 + 1×26 + 1×25 + 1×24 + 1×23 + 1×22 + 0×21 + 1×20
We can say that 253 in binary form is written as follows: 11111101.
Addition of Binary Numbers
The rules for adding binary numbers are similar to those used to add decimal numbers:
0+0=0
1+0=1
0+1=1
1 + 1 = 10 This is 2 written in binary
Let us now add larger binary numbers: 1101 + 1111
Note that;
a) When you do 1 + 1 it gives 2 which in binary is written as 10, put 0 below and carry 1 (in
red) exactly as it is done with decimal numbers.
b) When you do 1 + 1 + 1 it gives 3 which in binary is written as 11, so you put 1 below
and carry 1 (in red).
.
Figure: Addition of two binary numbers
We can easily check the corresponding addition in decimal system. The binary 1101 converted to
decimal gives 13 and 1111 converted to decimal gives 15 and 13 + 15 = 28 which in binary form
is written as 11100 which exactly the result given above when done using binary from.
The most important thing to retain is that we can add binary numbers in the same way we add
decimal numbers. It is also true for the subtraction, multiplication and division of numbers. The
main advantage of using binary numbers is that you need only two digits 0 and 1 to add, subtract,
multiply and divide numbers which leads to easier design of digital calculators such as
computers.
AN EASY APPROACH TO COMPUTER AND ITS APPLICATION IN PHARMACY
CHAPTER # 01
FUNDAMENTALS, BASIC CONCEPT OF COMPUTER
Number Bases:
Converting between different number bases is actually fairly simple, but the thinking behind it
can seem a bit confusing at first. And while the topic of different bases may seem somewhat
pointless to you, the rise of computers and computer graphics has increased the need for
knowledge of how to work with different (non-decimal) base systems, particularly binary
systems (ones and zeroes) and hexadecimal systems (the numbers zero through nine, followed by
the letters A through F).
In our customary base-ten system, we have digits for the numbers zero through nine. We do not
have a single-digit numeral for "ten". Yes, we write "10", but this stands for "1 ten and 0 ones".
This is two digits; we have no single solitary digit that stands for "ten".
Instead, when we need to count to one more than nine, we zero out the ones column and add one
to the tens column. When we get too big in the tens column -- when we need one more than nine
tens and nine ones ("99"), we zero out the tens and ones columns, and add one to the ten-timesten, or hundreds, column. The next column is the ten-times-ten-times-ten, or thousands, column.
And so forth, with each bigger column being ten times larger than the one before. We place
digits in each column, telling us how many copies of that power of ten we need.
The only reason base-ten math seems "natural" and the other bases don't is that you've been
doing base-ten since you were a child. And (nearly) every civilization has used base-ten math
probably for the simple reason that we have ten fingers. If instead we lived in a cartoon world,
where we would have only four fingers on each hand (count them next time you're watching TV
or reading the comics), then the "natural" base system would likely have been base-eight, or
"octal".
Base 2 and Base 10:
Let's look at base-two, or binary, numbers. How would you write, for instance, 1210 ("twelve,
base ten") as a binary number? You would have to convert to base-two columns, the analogue of
base-ten columns. In base ten, you have columns or "places" for 100 = 1, 101 = 10, 102 = 100, 103
= 1000, and so forth. Similarly in base two, you have columns or "places" for 20 = 1, 21 = 2, 22 =
4, 23 = 8, 24 = 16, and so forth.
The first column in base-two math is the units column. But only "0" or "1" can go in the units
column. When you get to "two", you find that there is no single solitary digit that stands for
"two" in base-two math. Instead, you put a "1" in the twos column and a "0" in the units column,
indicating "1 two and 0 ones". The base-ten "two" (210) is written in binary as 102.
A "three" in base two is actually "1 two and 1 one", so it is written as 112. "Four" is actually twotimes-two, so we zero out the twos column and the units column, and put a "1" in the fours
column; 410 is written in binary form as 1002. Here is a listing of the first few numbers:
AN EASY APPROACH TO COMPUTER AND ITS APPLICATION IN PHARMACY
CHAPTER # 01
FUNDAMENTALS, BASIC CONCEPT OF COMPUTER
decimal
(base 10)
binary
(base 2)
0
0
0 ones
1
1
1 one
2
10
1 two and zero ones
3
11
1 two and 1 one
4
100
1 four, 0 twos, and 0 ones
5
101
1 four, 0 twos, and 1 one
6
110
1 four, 1 two, and 0 ones
7
111
1 four, 1 two, and 1 one
8
1000
1 eight, 0 fours, 0 twos, and 0 ones
9
1001
1 eight, 0 fours, 0 twos, and 1 one
10
1010
1 eight, 0 fours, 1 two, and 0 ones
11
1011
1 eight, 0 fours, 1 two, and 1 one
12
1100
1 eight, 1 four, 0 twos, and 0 ones
13
1101
1 eight, 1 four, 0 twos, and 1 one
14
1110
1 eight, 1 four, 1 two, and 0 ones
15
1111
1 eight, 1 four, 1 two, and 1 one
16
10000
1 sixteen, 0 eights, 0 fours, 0 twos, and 0 ones
Converting between binary and decimal numbers is fairly simple, as long as you remember that
each digit in the binary number represents a power of two.
Example: 1 Copyright

Convert 1011001012 to the corresponding base-ten number.
I will list the digits in order, and count them off from the RIGHT, starting with zero:
digits:
1 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1
numbering: 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
AN EASY APPROACH TO COMPUTER AND ITS APPLICATION IN PHARMACY
CHAPTER # 01
FUNDAMENTALS, BASIC CONCEPT OF COMPUTER
The first row above (labelled "digits") contains the digits from the binary number; the second
row (labelled " numbering") contains the power of 2 (the base) corresponding to each digits. I
will use this listing to convert each digit to the power of two that it represents:
1×28 + 0×27 + 1×26 + 1×25 + 0×24 + 0×23 + 1×22 + 0×21 + 1×20
= 1×256 + 0×128 + 1×64 + 1×32 + 0×16 + 0×8 + 1×4 + 0×2 + 1×1
= 256 + 64 + 32 + 4 + 1
= 357 Copyright © Elizabeth Stapel 2001-2011 All Rights Reserved
Thus 1011001012 converts to 35710.
Now YOU try it!
Converting decimal numbers to binaries is nearly as simple: just divide by 2.

Convert 35710 to the corresponding binary number.
To do this conversion, I need to divide repeatedly by 2, keeping track of the remainders
as I go. As you can see, after dividing repeatedly by 2, I ended up with these remainders:
These remainders tell me what the binary number is. I read the numbers from around the outside
of the division, starting on top and wrapping my way around and down the right-hand side. As
you can see:
35710 converts to 1011001012.
This method of conversion will work for converting to any non-decimal base. Just don't forget to
include that first digit on the top, before the list of remainders. If you're interested, an
explanation of why this method works is available here. You can convert from base-ten
(decimal) to any other base.
AN EASY APPROACH TO COMPUTER AND ITS APPLICATION IN PHARMACY
CHAPTER # 01
FUNDAMENTALS, BASIC CONCEPT OF COMPUTER
Base 4
In base four, each digit in a number represents the number of copies of that power of four. That
is, the first digit tells you how many ones you have; the second tells you how many fours you
have; the third tells you how many sixteens (four-times-fours) you have; the fourth tells you how
many sixty-fours (four-times-four-times-fours) you have; and so on. The methodology for
conversion between decimal and base-four numbers is just like that for converting between
decimals and binaries, except that binary digits can be only "0" or "1", while the digits for basefour numbers can be "0", "1", "2", or "3". (As you might expect, there is no single solitary digit
in base-four math that represents the quantity "four").
Example: 1
 Convert 35710 to the corresponding base-four number.
I will do the same division that I did before, keeping track of the remainders. (You may
want to use scratch paper for this.)
Thus 35710 converts to 112114.
Example: 2
 Convert 80710 to the corresponding base-four number.
Note: Once I got "3" on top, I had to stop, because four cannot divide into 3. I get that 80710
converts to 302134.
Now YOU try it!
 Convert 302134 to the corresponding decimal number.
I will list out the digits, and then number them from the RIGHT, starting at zero:
digits:
3 0 2 1 3
numbering: 4 3 2 1 0
Each digit stands for the number of copies I need for that power of four:
3×44 + 0×43 + 2×42 + 1×41 + 3×40
= 3×256 + 0×64 + 2×16 + 1×4 + 3×1
AN EASY APPROACH TO COMPUTER AND ITS APPLICATION IN PHARMACY
CHAPTER # 01
FUNDAMENTALS, BASIC CONCEPT OF COMPUTER
= 768 + 32 + 4 + 3
= 807
As expected, 302134 converts to 80710.
Base Seven:
I can't think of any particular use for base-seven numbers, but they will serve us by providing
some more practice with conversions.
Example: 1 Copyright © Elizabeth Stapel 2001-2011 All Right
 Convert 35710 to the corresponding base-seven number.
Then 35710 = 10207.
Example: 2 Copyright
 Convert 1334610 to the corresponding base-seven number.
Then 1334610 = 536247.
Now YOU try it!

Convert 536247 to the corresponding decimal number.
I will list the digits, and count them off from the RIGHT, starting at zero:
digits:
5 3 6 2 4
numbering: 4 3 2 1 0
Then I'll do the multiplication and addition:
5×74 + 3×73 + 6×72 + 2×71 + 4×70
= 5×2401 + 3×343 + 6×49 + 2×7 + 4×1
= 12005 + 1029 + 294 + 14 + 4
= 13346
Thus 536247 = 1334610.
AN EASY APPROACH TO COMPUTER AND ITS APPLICATION IN PHARMACY
CHAPTER # 01
FUNDAMENTALS, BASIC CONCEPT OF COMPUTER
Octal (Base 8):
An older computer base system is "octal", or base eight. The digits in octal math are 0, 1, 2, 3, 4,
5, 6, and 7. The value "eight" is written as "1 eight and 0 ones", or 108.
Example: 1 Copyright

Convert 35710to the corresponding base-eight number.
I will do the usual repeated division, this time dividing by 8 at each step:
Then the corresponding octal number is 5458.
Now YOU try it!

Convert 5458 to the corresponding decimal number.
I will follow the usual procedure, counting off the digits from the RIGHT, starting at
zero:
digits:
5 4 5
numbering: 2 1 0
Then I'll do the addition and multiplication:
5×82 + 4×81 + 5×80
= 5×64 + 4×8 + 5×1
= 320 + 32 + 5
= 357
Then the corresponding decimal number is 35710.
Hexadecimal (Base 16):
If you work with computer programming or computer engineering (or computer graphics, about
which more later), you will encounter base-sixteen, or hexadecimal, math. As mentioned before,
decimal math does not have one single solitary digit that represents the value of "ten". Instead,
we use two digits, a 1 and a 0: "10". But in hexadecimal math, the columns stand for multiples of
sixteen! That is, the first column stands for how many units you have, the second column stands
for how many sixteens, the third column stands for how many two hundred fifty-sixes (sixteentimes-sixteens), and so forth.
This means that, in hexadecimal, we need to have "digits" 0 through 15. To do this, we would
need single solitary digits that stand for the values of "ten", "eleven", "twelve", "thirteen",
"fourteen", and "fifteen". But we don't. So, instead, we use letters. That is, counting in
hexadecimal, the sixteen "numerals" are:
0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E, F
AN EASY APPROACH TO COMPUTER AND ITS APPLICATION IN PHARMACY
CHAPTER # 01
FUNDAMENTALS, BASIC CONCEPT OF COMPUTER
In other words, A is "ten" in "regular" numbers, B is "eleven", C is "twelve", D is "thirteen", E is
"fourteen", and "F" is fifteen. It is this use of letters for digits that makes hexadecimal numbers
look so odd at first. But the conversions work in the usual manner.
Example: 1 Copyright

Convert 35710 to the corresponding hexadecimal number.
Here, I will divide repeatedly by 16, keeping track of the remainders as I go. (You might
want to use some scratch paper for this.)
Reading off the digits, starting from the top and wrapping around the right-hand side, I
see that 35710 = 16516.
Example: 2 Copyright

Convert 16516 to the corresponding decimal number.
List the digits, and count them off from the RIGHT, starting with zero:
digits:
1 6 5
numbering: 2 1 0
Remember that each digit in the hexadecimal number represents how many copies you
need of that power of sixteen, and convert the number to decimal:
1×162 + 6×161 + 5×160
= 1×256 + 6×16 + 5×1
= 256 + 96 + 5
= 357
Then 16516 = 35710.
Example: 3Copyright

Convert 6393310 to the corresponding hexadecimal number.
I will divide repeatedly by 16, keeping track of my remainders:
AN EASY APPROACH TO COMPUTER AND ITS APPLICATION IN PHARMACY
CHAPTER # 01
FUNDAMENTALS, BASIC CONCEPT OF COMPUTER
From the long division, I can see that the hexadecimal number will have a "fifteen" in the
sixteen-cubeds column, a "nine" in the sixteen-squareds column, an "eleven" in the
sixteens column, and a "thirteen" in the ones column. But I cannot write the hexadecimal
number as "1591113", because this would be confusing and imprecise. So I will use the
letters for the "digits" that are otherwise too large, letting "F" stand in for "fifteen", "B"
stand in for "eleven", and "D" stand in for "thirteen". Copyright © Elizabeth Stapel 19Thus 6393310 = F9BD16.
Now YOU try it!
 Convert F9BD to decimal notation.
I will list out the digits, and count them off from the RIGHT, starting at zero:
digits:
F 9 B D
numbering: 3 2 1 0
Actually, it will probably be helpful to redo this, converting the alphabetic hexadecimal
"digits" to their corresponding "regular" decimal values:
digits:
15 9 11 13
numbering:
3
2 1 0
Now I'll do the multiplication and addition:
15×163 + 9×162 + 11×161 + 13×160
= 15×4096 + 9×256 + 11×16 + 13×1
= 61440 + 2304 + 176 + 13
= 63933
As expected, F9BD = 6393310.
Computer Graphics:
If you work on web pages and graphics programs, you may find it helpful to convert between the
RGB values (for an image in your graphics program) and the hexadecimal values (for a matching
background color on the web page).
Graphics programs deal with the RGB (red-green-blue) values for colors. Each of these
components of a given color have values somewhere between 0 and 255. These values may be
converted to hexadecimal values between 00 and FF. If you list the RGB components of a color
as a string of three numbers, you might get, say, R:204, G:51, B:255, which translates into a
light-purplish #CC33FF in HTML coding. Note that 20410 = CC16, 5110 = 3316, and 25510 = FF16.
AN EASY APPROACH TO COMPUTER AND ITS APPLICATION IN PHARMACY
CHAPTER # 01
FUNDAMENTALS, BASIC CONCEPT OF COMPUTER
On the other hand, if you have some coding for #990033, this would translate into a dark-reddish
R:153, G:0, B:51 in your graphics program. That is, to convert between your graphics program
and your web-page coding, deal with the hexadecimal number not as one six-digit number, but as
three two-digit numbers, and convert these pairs of digits into the corresponding RGB values.
BUS
Definition:
In computer architecture, a bus is a subsystem that transfers data between components inside a
computer, or between computers.
OR
A collection of wires through which data is transmitted from one part of a computer to another.
Explanation:
Early computer buses were literally parallel electrical wires with multiple connections, but the
term is now used for any physical arrangement that provides the same logical functionality as a
parallel electrical bus. Modern computer
buses can use both parallel and bit serial
connections, and can be wired in either a
multi drop (electrical parallel) or daisy
chain topology, or connected by switched
hubs, as in the case of USB.
You can think of a bus as a highway on
which data travels within a computer. When
used in reference to personal computers, the
term bus usually refers to internal bus. This
is a bus that connects all the internal
computer components to the CPU and main
memory. There's also an expansion bus that
enables expansion boards to access the
CPU and memory.
The size of a bus, known as its width, is important because it determines how much data can be
transmitted at one time. For example, a 16-bit bus can transmit 16 bits of data, whereas a 32-bit
bus can transmit 32 bits of data. Every bus has a clock speed measured in MHz. A fast bus
allows data to be transferred faster, which makes applications run faster. On PCs, the old ISA
bus is being replaced by faster buses such as PCI.
Nearly all PCs made today include a local bus for data that requires especially fast transfer
speeds, such as video data. The local bus is a high-speed pathway that connects directly to the
AN EASY APPROACH TO COMPUTER AND ITS APPLICATION IN PHARMACY
CHAPTER # 01
FUNDAMENTALS, BASIC CONCEPT OF COMPUTER
processor. Several different types of buses are used on Apple Macintosh computers. Older Macs
use a bus called NuBus, but newer ones use PCI.
Bus subassembly (parts):
In reality, each bus is generally constituted of 50 to 100 distinct physical lines, divided into three
subassemblies:
1. The address bus (sometimes called the memory bus) transports memory addresses which
the processor wants to access in order to read or write data. It is a unidirectional bus.
2. The data bus transfers instructions coming from or going to the processor. It is a
bidirectional bus.
3. The control bus (or command bus) transports orders and synchronization signals coming
from the control unit and traveling to all other hardware components. It is a bidirectional
bus, as it also transmits response signals from the hardware.
PORT
Definition:
In computer networking a port is an application-specific or process-specific hardware construct
serving as a communications endpoint in a computer's host operating system.
OR
It is an interface on a computer, to which you can connect a device.
Explanation:
The term "port" is derived from a Dutch word "poort" meaning gate, entrance or door. In
computer hardware, a port serves as an interface between the computer and other computers or
peripheral devices. Physically, a port is a specialized outlet on a piece of equipment to which a
plug or cable connects. Electronically, the several conductors making up the outlet provide a
signal transfer between devices.
Physical shape: Computer ports in common use cover a wide variety of shapes such as round
(PS/2, etc.), rectangular (FireWire, etc.), square (Telephone plug), trapezoidal (D-Sub — the old
printer port was a DB-25), etc. There is some standardization to physical properties and function.
For instance, most computers have a keyboard port (currently a round DIN-like outlet referred to
as PS/2), into which the keyboard is connected.
Types of Computer of ports:
There are different ports that are used in the computer system for the sake of the expenditure of
the network and connect different additional devices to the computer. Some of the common
computer ports are as follows;
1. serial ports
2. parallel ports
AN EASY APPROACH TO COMPUTER AND ITS APPLICATION IN PHARMACY
CHAPTER # 01
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
FUNDAMENTALS, BASIC CONCEPT OF COMPUTER
SCSI ports
MIDI ports
USB ports
VGA Ports
Network ports
Firewire ports.
These are discussed here under in detail.
1. Serial Ports: The first type of the port is the serial port. Generally in the family of the
computers it is called as the male ports that handle all the
major processes of the computational world. These types of
ports consist of 9 to 24 pins in them and commonly used for
the devices such as mouse, printers etc. serial ports are able
to sends the data in the range of more then 18 feet. Every
device has its own separate serial port. Serial ports have
ability to do one and two way data transmission with complete responsibility. Serial ports
are rarely used these days as the USB port is the port of choice to connect devices to.
2. Parallel Ports: Basically it is a female port in the family of computers. A parallel port
generally consists of 25 holes or pins and commonly connected the devices related to the
printers or scanner with the personal computer. The working
performance of parallel ports is faster as compared to the
serial ports or other types of ports. They are built in mother
board & contain 25 wires from which 8 are involved in data
transmission & examining controls the whole circuit. Parallel
ports have ability to sends 8 bits (1 byte) data per second and every port is labeled
separately such as LPT 1 and LPT 2. IEEE 1284 standard defines the bi-directional
version of the port, which allow the transmission & reception of data bits at the same
time. Parallel ports are used to connect printers to your PC. USB & network ports have
taken over this port as the port of choice to connect a printer.
3. SCSI Ports: SCSI ports stands for the small computer interface
system ports that are regularly in the system for the connection of
the additional devices with the system such as scanners, USB and
many other zip drives. SCSI Ports allow you to connect up to 16
devices on a single port. These devices can be disks, tape drives
or scanners. SAS is the new standard and has almost replaced SCSI technology.
4. MIDI Ports: These ports stand for the musical instrument data interface ports and are
generally used for connecting the different types of musical devices with the computer
system. Different types of music composer are used MIDI ports to connect their musical
instruments with the system to enhance the working. The advantages of the MIDI ports
are that musicians can easily record or edit the required music.
5. USB Ports: USB or Universal Serial Bus is by far the most
popular port for PC's and laptops. It's easy to identify and simple
to connect devices to it. USB ports can also supply electric
power across the cable to devices without their own power
source. Both wired and wireless versions of the USB standard
AN EASY APPROACH TO COMPUTER AND ITS APPLICATION IN PHARMACY
CHAPTER # 01
FUNDAMENTALS, BASIC CONCEPT OF COMPUTER
exist, although only wired version involves USB ports and
cables.
6. VGA Ports: VGA (Video Graphics Array) Ports are ports
where you connect your graphics screen. These ports are either
on the motherboard or could also be a external card that you
slot into the motherboard.
7. Network Ports: With network ports you can connect to either a
local area network or to the internet. These ports come built in
on the motherboard or you can buy an add in card with a
network port.
8. Firewire port: The IEEE 1394 interface, developed in late
1980s and early 1990s by Apple as FireWire, is a serial bus interface standard for highspeed (50 megabytes per second) communications and isochronous real-time data
transfer. The 1394 interface is comparable with USB and often those two technologies
are considered together, though USB has more market share.
Apple first included FireWire in some of its 1999 models,
and most Apple computers since the year 2000 have
included FireWire ports, though, as of 2012, nothing beyond
the 800 version (IEEE-1394b). The interface is also known
by the brand i.LINK (Sony), and Lynx (Texas Instruments).
IEEE 1394 replaced parallel SCSI in many applications,
because of lower implementation costs and a simplified, more adaptable cabling system.
The 1394 standard also defines a backplane interface, though this is not as widely used.
IEEE 1394 is the High-Definition Audio-Video Network Alliance (HANA) standard
connection interface for A/V (audio/visual) component communication and control.
FireWire is also available in wireless, fiber optic etc.
Advantages of Computer Ports:
Computer ports that are generally used in the computer field have no specific advantages because
there advantages and disadvantages depends upon the types. Some ports are faster and reliable as
compared to others. Some ports have higher speed of data transmission or some are involved in
the expenditure of the system, but some general advantages of the computer ports are;



They provide the opportunity to the users to connect their additional devices,
Helps in improving the system and also in enhancing the business etc.
Working of the computer ports is also specific and depends upon the types of the ports.
AN EASY APPROACH TO COMPUTER AND ITS APPLICATION IN PHARMACY