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Naval Postgraduate School Distance Learning Antennas & Propagation LECTURE NOTES VOLUME V ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVE PROPAGATION by Professor David Jenn (ver1.3) Naval Postgraduate School Antennas & Propagation Distance Learning Propagation of Electromagnetic Waves Radiating systems must operate in a complex changing environment that interacts with propagating electromagnetic waves. Commonly observed propagation effects are depicted below. 4 SATELLITE IONOSPHERE 3 1 2 3 4 5 6 5 1 2 TRANSMITTER 6 RECEIVER DIRECT REFLECTED TROPOSCATTER IONOSPHERIC HOP SATELLITE RELAY GROUND WAVE EARTH Troposphere: lower regions of the atmosphere (less than 10 km) Ionosphere: upper regions of the atmosphere (50 km to 1000 km) Effects on waves: reflection, refraction, diffraction, attenuation, scattering, and depolarization. 1 Naval Postgraduate School Antennas & Propagation Distance Learning Survey of Propagation Mechanisms (1) There are may propagation mechanisms by which signals can travel between the radar transmitter and receiver. Except for line-of-sight (LOS) paths, the mechanism’s effectiveness is generally a strong function of the frequency and transmitter-receiver geometry. 1. direct path or "line of sight" (most radars; SHF links from ground to satellites) RX o TX o SURFACE 2. direct plus earth reflections or "multipath" (UHF broadcast; ground-to-air and airto-air communications) o TX RX o SURFACE 3. ground wave (AM broadcast; Loran C navigation at short ranges) TX RX o SURFACE o 2 Naval Postgraduate School Antennas & Propagation Distance Learning Survey of Propagation Mechanisms (2) 4. ionospheric hop (MF and HF broadcast and communications) F-LAYER OF IONOSPHERE TX o RX o E-LAYER OF IONOSPHERE SURFACE 5. waveguide modes or "ionospheric ducting" (VLF and LF communications) TX o RX o D-LAYER OF IONOSPHERE SURFACE Note: The distinction between ionospheric hops and waveguide modes is based more on the mathematical models than on physical processes. 3 Naval Postgraduate School Antennas & Propagation Distance Learning Survey of Propagation Mechanisms (3) 6. tropospheric paths or "troposcatter" (microwave links; over-the-horizon (OTH) radar and communications) TROPOSPHERE TX o RX o SURFACE 7. terrain diffraction TX o RX o MOUNTAIN 8. low altitude and surface ducts (radar frequencies) SURFACE DUCT (HIGH DIELECTRIC CONSTANT) TX o SURFACE o RX 9. Other less significant mechanisms: meteor scatter, whistlers 4 Naval Postgraduate School Antennas & Propagation Distance Learning Illustration of Propagation Phenomena (From Prof. C. A. Levis, Ohio State University) 5 Naval Postgraduate School Antennas & Propagation Distance Learning Propagation Mechanisms by Frequency Bands VLF and LF (10 to 200 kHz) LF to MF (200 kHz to 2 MHz) HF (2 MHz to 30 MHz) VHF (30 MHz to 100 MHz) UHF (80 MHz to 500 MHz) SHF (500 MHz to 10 GHz) Waveguide mode between Earth and D-layer; ground wave at short distances Transition between ground wave and mode predominance and sky wave (ionospheric hops). Sky wave especially pronounced at night. Ionospheric hops. Very long distance communications with low power and simple antennas. The “short wave” band. With low power and small antennas, primarily for local use using direct or direct-plus-Earth-reflected propagation; ducting can greatly increase this range. With large antennas and high power, ionospheric scatter communications. Direct: early-warning radars, aircraft-to satellite and satellite-to-satellite communications. Direct-plus-Earth-reflected: air-to-ground communications, local television. Tropospheric scattering: when large highly directional antennas and high power are used. Direct: most radars, satellite communications. Tropospheric refraction and terrain diffraction become important in microwave links and in satellite communication, at low altitudes. 6 Naval Postgraduate School Antennas & Propagation Distance Learning Applications of Propagation Phenomena Direct Direct plus Earth reflections Ground wave Most radars; SHF links from ground to satellites UHF broadcast TV with high antennas; ground-to-air and air-toground communications Local Standard Broadcast (AM), Loran C navigation at relatively short ranges Tropospheric paths Microwave links Waveguide modes VLF and LF systems for long-range communication and navigation (Earth and D-layer form the waveguide) Ionospheric hops MF and HF broadcast communications (including most long-distance (E- and F-layers) amateur communications) Tropospheric scatter UHF medium distance communications Ionospheric scatter Medium distance communications in the lower VHF portion of the band Meteor scatter VHF long distance low data rate communications 7 Naval Postgraduate School Antennas & Propagation Distance Learning Multipath From a Flat Ground (1) When both a transmitter and receiver are operating near the surface of the earth, multipath (multiple reflections) can cause fading of the signal. We examine a single reflection from the ground assuming a flat earth. RECEIVER d . TRANSMITTER Ro θ=0 R2 • ht ht C A • θ′ = 0 B ψ R1 • • D hr ψ EARTH'S SURFACE (FLAT) IMAGE • REFLECTION POINT jφ Γ ρe The reflected wave appears to originate from an image. 8 Naval Postgraduate School Antennas & Propagation Distance Learning Multipath From a Flat Ground (2) Multipath parameters: 1. Reflection coefficient, Γ = ρ e jφΓ . For low grazing angles, ψ ≈ 0 , the approximation Γ ≈ −1 is valid for both horizontal and vertical polarizations. 2. Transmit antenna gain: Gt (θ A ) for the direct wave; Gt (θ B ) for the reflected wave. 3. Receive antenna gain: Gr (θC ) for the direct wave; Gr (θ D ) for the reflected wave. 4. Path difference: ∆R = (R1 + R2 ) − Ro 1424 3 { REFLECTED DIRECT Gain is proportional to the square of the electric field intensity. For example, if Gto is the gain of the transmit antenna in the direction of the maximum (θ = 0 ), then 2 Gt (θ ) = Gto E t norm (θ ) ≡ Gto f t (θ ) 2 where Et norm is the normalized electric field intensity. Similarly for the receive antenna with its maximum gain in the direction θ ′ = 0 2 Gr (θ ′) = Gro E rnorm (θ ′) ≡ Gro f r (θ ′) 2 9 Naval Postgraduate School Antennas & Propagation Distance Learning Multipath From a Flat Ground (3) Total field at the receiver E tot = E ref { REFLECTED + E dir { DIRECT F4444448 6444444≡7 − jkR o e 1 + Γ f t (θ B ) f r (θ D ) e − jk∆R = f t (θ A ) f r (θC ) 4π Ro f t (θ A ) f r (θ C ) The quantity in the square brackets is the path-gain factor (PGF) or pattern-propagation factor (PPF). It relates the total field at the receiver to that of free space and takes on values 0 ≤ F ≤ 2 . • If F = 0 then the direct and reflected rays cancel (destructive interference) • If F = 2 the two waves add (constructive interference) Note that if the transmitter and receiver are at approximately the same heights, close to the ground, and the antennas are pointed at each other, then d >> ht ,hr and Gt (θ A ) ≈ Gt (θ B ) Gr (θ C ) ≈ Gr (θ D ) 10 Naval Postgraduate School Antennas & Propagation Distance Learning Multipath From a Flat Ground (4) An approximate expression for the path difference is obtained from a series expansion: 2 1 ( hr − ht ) Ro = d + ( hr − ht ) ≈ d + 2 d 2 2 1 (ht + hr ) 2 R1 + R2 = d + ( ht + hr ) ≈ d + 2 d 2 2 Therefore, ∆R ≈ and ( 2hr ht d | F |= 1 − e − jk 2 h r h t / d = e jkh r h t / d e − jkh r ht /d ) − e jkh r h t / d = 2 sin (khr ht / d ) The received power depends on the square of the path gain factor 2 kht hr 2 2 kht hr Pr ∝ | F | = 4 sin ≈ 4 d d The last approximation is based on h r , ht << d and Γ ≈ -1. 11 Naval Postgraduate School Antennas & Propagation Distance Learning Multipath From a Flat Ground (5) Two different forms of the argument are frequently used. 1. Assume that the transmitter is near the ground ht ≈ 0 and use its height as a reference. The elevation angle is ψ where h − ht ∆h hr tanψ = r ≡ ≈ d d d Ro ∆h = hr − ht ψ d 2. If the transmit antenna is very close to the ground, then the reflection point is very near to the transmitter and ψ is also the grazing angle: ∆R = b − a = 2 ht sin ψ ht a ψ ψ b ψ If the antenna is pointed at the horizon (i.e., its maximum is parallel to the ground) then ψ ≈ θ A. 12 Naval Postgraduate School Antennas & Propagation Distance Learning Multipath From a Flat Ground (6) Thus with the given restrictions the PPF can be expressed in terms of ψ | F |= 2 sin (kht tanψ ) The PPF has minima at: kht tanψ = nπ ( n = 0, 1, K, ∞ ) 2π ht tanψ = nπ λ tanψ = nλ / ht Maxima occur at: kht tanψ = mπ / 2 ( m = 1, 3, 5,K , ∞ ) 2π 2n + 1 ht tanψ = π ( n = 0 ,1,K ,∞ ) λ 2 (2 n + 1)λ tanψ = 4ht Plots | F | are called a coverage diagram. The horizontal axis is usually distance and the vertical axis receiver height. (Note that because d >> hr the angle ψ is not directly measurable from the plot.) 13 Naval Postgraduate School Antennas & Propagation Distance Learning Multipath From a Flat Ground (7) Coverage diagram: Contour plots of | F | in dB for variations in hr and d normalized to a reference range d o . Note that when d = d o then E tot = E dir . d | F |= 2 o sin (kht tanψ ) d RECEIVER HEIGHT, hr (m) 60 d o = 2000 m 50 ht = 100λ 40 30 20 10 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 RANGE, d (m) 14 Naval Postgraduate School Antennas & Propagation Distance Learning Multipath From a Flat Ground (8) Another means of displaying the received field is a height-gain curve. It is a plot of | F | in dB vs hr at a fixed range. • The constructive and destructive interference as a function of height can be identified. • At low frequencies the periodicity of the curve at low heights can be destroyed by the ground wave. • Usually there are many reflected wave paths between the transmitter and receiver, in which case the peaks and nulls are distorted. • This technique is often used to determine the optimum tower height for a broadcast radio antenna. PATH GAIN FACTOR (dB) 10 5 0 -5 -10 -15 -20 0 10 20 30 40 RECEIVER HEIGHT, hr (m) 50 60 15 Naval Postgraduate School Antennas & Propagation Distance Learning Multipath Example A radar antenna is mounted on a 5 m mast and tracks a point target at 4 km. The target is 2 m above the surface and the wavelength is 0.2 m. (a) Find the location of the reflection point on the x axis and the grazing angle ψ . (b) Write an expression for the one way path gain factor F when a reflected wave is present. Assume a reflection coefficient of Γ ≈ −1 . (b) The restrictions on the heights and distance are satisfied for the following 5m formula 2m ψ ψ x=0 x=4 km x Reflection Point (a) Denote the location of the reflection point by xr and use similar triangles 5 2 tanψ = = x r 4000 − x r xr = 2.86 km ψ = tan -1 (5 / 2860) = 0.1o kh h 2π ( 2)( 5) F = 2 sin t r = 2 sin d (0.2 )( 4000 = ( 2 )(0.785) = 0.157 The received power varies as F 2 , thus ( ) = −16.1 dB 10 log F 2 The received power is 16.1 dB below the free space value 16 Naval Postgraduate School Antennas & Propagation Distance Learning Field Intensity From the ERP The product Pt Gt is called the effective radiated power (ERP, or sometimes the effective isotropic radiated power, EIRP). We can relate the ERP to the electric field intensity as follows: • The Poynting vector for a TEM wave: r r r* W =ℜ E ×H = { • For the direct path: } r Edir 2 ηo r PG W = t t 4πRo2 • Equate the two expressions: (note that ηo ≈ 120π ) r Edir ηo 2 = Pt Gt 4πRo2 ⇒ r 30 Pt G t Eo Edir = ≡ d d where Eo is called the unattenuated field intensity at unit distance. 17 Naval Postgraduate School Antennas & Propagation Distance Learning Wave Reflection at the Earth’s Surface (1) Fresnel reflection coefficients hold when: 1. the Earth’s surface is locally flat in the vicinity of the reflection point 2. the surface is smooth (height of irregularities << λ ) Traditional notation: 1. grazing angle, ψ = 90o − θ i , and the grazing angle is usually very small (ψ < 1o ) σ σ ≡ ε o (ε r − jχ ) , 2. complex dielectric constant, ε c = ε r ε o − j = ε o ε r − j 1424 3 ω ε ω o εrc σ ωεo 3. horizontal and vertical polarization reference is used where χ = Also called transverse magnetic (TM) pol VERTICAL POL r r E|| = EV n̂ k̂ i ψ SURFACE HORIZONTAL POL r r E⊥ = E H ψ kˆi n̂ Also called transverse electric (TE) pol SURFACE 18 Naval Postgraduate School Antennas & Propagation Distance Learning Wave Reflection at the Earth’s Surface (2) Reflection coefficients for horizontal and vertical polarizations: − Γ|| ≡ RV = (ε r − jχ ) sinψ − (ε r − jχ ) − cos 2 ψ (ε r − jχ ) sinψ + (ε r − jχ ) − cos 2 ψ Γ⊥ ≡ RH = sinψ − (ε r − jχ ) − cos 2 ψ sinψ + (ε r − jχ ) − cos 2 ψ For vertical polarization the phenomenon of total reflection can occur. This yields a surface guided wave called a ground wave. From Snell’s law, assuming µ r = 1 for the Earth, sin θ i = sin θ r = (ε r − jχ ) µ r sin θ t Let θ t be complex, θ t = π + jθ , where θ is real. 2 ⇒ µ r =1 sin θ t = sin θ i ε r − jχ 19 Naval Postgraduate School Antennas & Propagation Distance Learning Wave Reflection at the Earth’s Surface (3) Using θ t = π + jθ : 2 Snell’s law becomes π sin θ t = sin + jθ = cos( jθ ) = cosh θ 2 cosθ t = − j sin( jθ ) = − j sinh θ sin θ t = cosh θ = sin θ i ε r − jχ cosθ t = 1 − sin 2 θ t = 1 − cosh 2 θ = sinh θ Reflection coefficient for vertical polarization: Γ|| ≡ − RV = jη sinh θ + ηo cosθ i jη sinh θ − ηo cosθ i µo . Note that Γ|| = 1 and therefore all of the power flow is along the ε o (ε r − j χ ) surface. The wave decays exponentially with distance into the Earth. where η = 20 Naval Postgraduate School Antennas & Propagation Distance Learning Wave Reflection at the Earth’s Surface (4) Example: surface wave propagating along a perfectly conducting plate • • • • • 5λ plate 15 degree grazing angle TM (vertical) polarization the total field is plotted (incident plus scattered) surface waves will follow curved surfaces if the radius of curvature >> λ INCIDENT WAVE (75 DEGREES OFF OF NORMAL) CONDUCTING PLATE 21 Naval Postgraduate School Antennas & Propagation Distance Learning Atmospheric Refraction (1) Refraction by the lower atmosphere causes waves to be bent back towards the earth’s surface. The ray trajectory is described by the equation: n Re sinθ = CONSTANT Two ways of expressing the index of refraction n (= ε r ) in the troposphere: 1. n = 1 + χρ / ρSL + HUMIDITY TERM Re = 6378 km = earth radius χ ≈ 0.00029 = Gladstone-Dale constant ρ, ρ SL = mass densities at altitude and sea level 77.6 2. n = ( p + 4,810 e / T )10 −6 − 1 T θ REFRACTED RAY θ Re Re Re θ EARTH'S SURFACE p = air pressure (millibars) T = temperature (K) e = partial pressure of water vapor (millibars) 22 Naval Postgraduate School Antennas & Propagation Distance Learning Atmospheric Refraction (2) Refraction of a wave can provide a significant level of transmission over the horizon. A bent refracted ray can be represented by a straight ray if an equivalent earth radius Re′ is used. For most atmospheric conditions Re′ = 4 Re / 3 = 8500 km REFRACTED RAY TX TX RX LINE OF SIGHT (LOS) BLOCKED BY EARTH'S BULGE ht RX hr ht hr EARTH'S SURFACE EARTH RADIUS , Re REFRACTED RAY BECOMES A STRAIGHT LINE EARTH'S SURFACE EQUIVALENT EARTH RADIUS, Re′ STANDARD CONDITIONS: 4 Re′ ≈ Re 3 23 Naval Postgraduate School Antennas & Propagation Distance Learning Atmospheric Refraction (3) Distance from the transmit antenna to the horizon is Rt = (Re′ + ht ) − (Re′ ) but Re′ >> ht so that Rt ≈ 2 Re′ ht . Similarly Rr ≈ 2 Re′ hr . The radar horizon is the sum 2 RRH ≈ 2 Re′ht + 2 Re′ hr Example: A missile is flying 15 m TX above the ocean towards a ground ht based radar. What is the approximate range that the missile can be detected assuming standard atmospheric EARTH'S SURFACE conditions? 2 Rt Rr RX hr Re′ Re′ Re′ Using ht = 0 and hr = 15 gives a radar horizon of R RH ≈ 2 Re′ hr ≈ (2)(8500 × 10 3 )(15) ≈ 16 km 24 Naval Postgraduate School Antennas & Propagation Distance Learning Atmospheric Refraction (4) Derivation of the equivalent Earth radius θ (h ) h RAY PATH TANGENT n (h ) θo VERTICAL SURFACE Break up the atmosphere into thin horizontal layers. Snell’s law must hold at the boundary between each layer, ε ( h ) sin [θ ( h ) ] = ε o sin θo h h3 h2 h1 M θ (h ) θ2 θ1 n( h3 ) n( h2 ) n (h1 ) THIN LAYER IN WHICH n ≈ CONSTANT θo SURFACE 25 Naval Postgraduate School Antennas & Propagation Distance Learning Atmospheric Refraction (5) In terms of the Earth radius, Re ε o sin θ o = ( Re + h ) ε ( R) sin [θ ( R) ] 3 14 4244 3 1444424444 AT THE SURFACE AT RADIUS R = Re + h Using the grazing angle, and assuming that ε (h ) varies linearly with h d Re ε o cosψ o = ( Re + h ) ε o + h ε ( h ) cos[ψ ( h )] dh Expand and rearrange d d Re ε o {cosψ o − cos[ψ ( h ) ]} = ε o + Re ε ( h ) h cos[ψ ( h )] + h 2 ε ( h ) cos[ψ ( h )] dh dh If h << Re then the last term can be dropped, and since ψ is small, cosψ ≈ 1 + ψ 2 / 2 [ψ ( h )]2 ≈ ψ o2 + 2h 1 + Re d ε ( h ) Re ε o dh The second term is due to the inhomogenity of the index of refraction with altitude. 26 Naval Postgraduate School Antennas & Propagation Distance Learning Atmospheric Refraction (6) Define a constant κ such that [ψ (h )]2 2h 2h ≈ ψ o2 + = ψ o2 + κRe Re′ where Re d κ = 1 + ε ( h) ε dh o −1 Re′ = κRe is the effective (equivalent) Earth radius. If Re′ is used as the Earth radius then rays can be drawn as straight lines. This is the radius that would produce the same geometrical relationship between the source of the ray and the receiver near the Earth’s surface, assuming a constant index of refraction. The restrictions on the model are: 1. 2. Ray paths are nearly horizontal ε (h ) versus h is linear over the range of heights considered Under standard (normal) atmospheric conditions, κ ≈ 4 / 3 . That is, the radius of the Earth 4 is approximately Re′ = 6378 km = 8500 km . This is commonly referred to as “the four 3 thirds Earth approximation.” 27 Naval Postgraduate School Antennas & Propagation Distance Learning Fresnel Zones (1) For the direct path phase to differ from the reflected path phase by an integer multiple of 180 o the paths must differ by integer multiples of λ / 2 ∆R = nλ / 2 ( n = 0,1,K ) The collection of points at which reflection would produce an excess path length of nλ / 2 is called the nth Fresnel zone. In three dimensions the surfaces are ellipsoids centered on the direct path between the transmitter and receiver LOCUS OF REFLECTION POINTS (SURFACES OF REVOLUTION) DIRECT PATH (LOS) n=2 RECEIVER n =1 TRANSMITTER hr ht REFLECTING SURFACE 28 Naval Postgraduate School Antennas & Propagation Distance Learning Fresnel Zones (2) A slice of the vertical plane gives the following geometry d dr dt TX ht R1 R2 RX hr nth FRESNEL ZONE REFLECTION POINT For the reflection coefficient Γ = ρ e jπ = − ρ : • If n is even the two paths are out of phase and the received signal is a minimum • If n is odd the two paths are in phase and the received signal is a maximum Because the LOS is nearly horizontal Ro ≈ d and therefore Ro = d t + d r ≈ d . For the nth Fresnel zone R1 + R2 = d + nλ / 2 . 29 Naval Postgraduate School Antennas & Propagation Distance Learning Fresnel Zones (3) The radius of the nth Fresnel zone is Fn = nλ d t d r d or, if the distances are in miles, then Fn = 72.1 nd t d r (feet) f GHz d Transmission path design: the objective is to find transmitter and receiver locations and heights that give signal maxima. In general: 1. reflection points should not lie on even Fresnel zones 2. the LOS should clear all obstacles by 0.6 F1, which essentially gives free space transmission The significance of 0.6 F1 is illustrated by examining two canonical problems: (1) knife edge diffraction and (2) smooth sphere diffraction. Conversions: 0.0254 m = 1 in; 12 in = 1 ft; 3.3 ft = 1 m; 5280 ft = 1 mi; 1 km = 0.62 mi 30 Naval Postgraduate School Antennas & Propagation Distance Learning Diffraction (1) Knife edge diffraction l = CLEARANCE DISTANCE l>0 l = 0, SHADOW BOUNDARY l<0 ht SHARP OBSTACLE hr d Smooth sphere diffraction l = CLEARANCE DISTANCE BULGE ht l = 0, SHADOW BOUNDARY l>0 l<0 hr SMOOTH CONDUCTOR 31 Naval Postgraduate School Antennas & Propagation Distance Learning Diffraction (2) A plot of E tot shows that at 0.6 F1 the free space (direct path) value is obtained. Edir SHADOW BOUNDARY r E r Edir 0 FREE SPACE FIELD VALUE in dB -5 -6 l<0 -10 l>0 0 0.6 F1 CLEARANCE DISTANCE, l > 0 32 Naval Postgraduate School Antennas & Propagation Distance Learning Path Clearance Example Consider a 30 mile point-to-point communication link over the ocean. The frequency of operation is 5 GHz and the antennas are at the same height. Find the lowest height that provides the same field strength as in free space. Assume standard atmospheric conditions. The geometry is shown below (distorted scale). The bulge factor (in feet) is given dd approximately by b = t r , where d t 1.5κ and d r are in miles. 0.6F1 TX ht d b dt bmax dr Re′ RX hr The maximum bulge occurs at the midpoint. d ≈ dt + dr (15)(15) bmax = = 112.5 ft (1.5)( 4 / 3) Fn = 72.1 nd t d r ft f GHz d 0.6 F1 = 53 ft Compute the minimum antenna height: h = bmax + 0.6 F1 = 112.5 + 53 = 165 ft 33 Naval Postgraduate School Antennas & Propagation Distance Learning Example of Link Design (1) 34 Naval Postgraduate School Antennas & Propagation Distance Learning Example of Link Design (2) 35 Naval Postgraduate School Antennas & Propagation Distance Learning Antennas Over a Spherical Earth When the transmitter to receiver distance becomes too large the flat Earth approximation is no longer accurate. The curvature of the surface causes: 1. divergence of the power in the reflected wave in the interference region 2. diffracted wave in the shadow region (note that this is not the same as a ground wave) The distance to the horizon is d t = RRH ≈ 2 Re′ ht or, if ht is in feet, d t ≈ 2ht miles. The maximum LOS distance between the transmit and receive antennas is d max = d t + d r ≈ 2 ht + 2hr (miles) TANGENT RAY (SHADOW BOUNDARY) INTERFERENCE REGION hr ht dt R ′e dr DIFFRACTION REGION SMOOTH CONDUCTOR 36 Naval Postgraduate School Antennas & Propagation Distance Learning Interference Region Formulas (1) Interference region formulas Ro R2 R1 hr ψ ψ ht dt Re′ dr SMOOTH CONDUCTOR The path-gain factor is given by F = 1 + ρ e jφ Γ e − jk∆R D where D is the divergence factor (power) and ∆R = R1 + R2 − Ro . 37 Naval Postgraduate School Antennas & Propagation Distance Learning Interference Region Formulas (2) Approximate formulas1 for the interference region: 2 F = (1 + Γ D ) − 4 Γ 1 φ − k∆R 2 D sin 2 Γ 2 where −1 2h1h2 h1 + h2 4 S1S 22T ∆R = J ( S , T ) , tanψ = K ( S , T ) , D = 1 + (power) 2 d d S (1 − S 2 )(1 + T ) d1 d2 S1 = , S2 = where h1 is the smallest of either ht or hr 2 Re′ h1 2 Re′ h2 S= d S T + S2 = 1 , T = h1 / h2 (< 1 since h1 < h2 ) ′ ′ 1 + T 2 Reh1 + 2 Reh2 J ( S , T ) = (1 − S12 )(1 − S 22 ) , and K ( S , T ) = (1 − S12 ) + T 2 (1 − S 22 ) 1+ T2 1 D. E. Kerr, Propagation of Short Radio Waves, Radiation Laboratory Series, McGraw-Hill, 1951 (the formulas have been reprinted in many other books including R. E. Collin, Antennas and Radiowave Propagation, McGraw-Hill, 1985). 38 Naval Postgraduate School Antennas & Propagation Distance Learning Interference Region Formulas (3) The distances can be computed from d = d1 + d 2 and d Φ+π −1 2 Re′ (h1 − h2 ) d d1 = + p cos , , Φ = cos 3 2 3 p and 2 d2 p= Re′ ( h1 + h2 ) + 4 3 Another form for the phase difference is k∆R = 1/ 2 2kh1h2 (1 − S12 )(1 − S 22 ) = νζπ d where 4 h13 / 2 h13 / 2 ν= = , λ 2 Re′ 1030λ ζ = h2 / h1 (1 − S12 )(1 − S 22 ) , d / d RH and d RH = 2 Re′ h1 (distance to the radio horizon). 39 Naval Postgraduate School Antennas & Propagation Distance Learning Diffraction Region Formulas (1) DIRECT RAY TO HORIZON SHADOW BOUNDARY ht d hr DIFFRACTED RAYS R ′e Approximate formulas for the diffraction region (frequencies > 100 MHz): F = V1 ( X )U1 ( Z1 )U1 ( Z 2 ) where U 1 is available from tables or curves, Z i = hi / H ( i = 1,2 ), X = d / L , and 1 2 3 1 Re′ 3 2 ( R′ ) 2/3 V1 ( X ) = 2 π X e − 2.02 X , L = 2 e = 28.41λ1/ 3 (km), H = = 47 . 55 λ (m) 4k 2k 40 Naval Postgraduate School Antennas & Propagation Distance Learning Diffraction Region Formulas (2) A plot of U1 ( Z ) Fig. 6.29 in R. E. Collin, Antennas and Radiowave Propagation, McGraw-Hill, 1985 (axis labels corrected) 41 Naval Postgraduate School Antennas & Propagation Distance Learning Surface Waves (1) At low frequencies (1 kHz to about 3 MHz) the interface between air and the ground acts like an efficient waveguide at low frequencies for vertical polarization. Collectively the space wave (direct and Earth reflected) and surface wave are called the ground wave. SURFACE WAVE ht hr d R′e The power density at the receiver is the free space value times an attenuation factor Pr = Pdir 2 As 2 where the factor of 2 is by convention. Most estimates of As are based calculations for a surface wave along a flat interface. Approximations for a flat surface are good for d ≤ 50 /( f MHz )1 / 3 miles. Beyond this distance the received signal attenuates more quickly. 42 Naval Postgraduate School Antennas & Propagation Distance Learning Surface Waves (2) Define a two parameters: kd p= (numerical distance) + (σ / ωεo ) ε ε ω b = tan −1 r o σ 1.8 × 10 4σ A convenient formula is σ / ωεo = . The attenuation factor for the ground wave f MHz 2 + 0.3 p − 0.6 p o is approximately As = − p / 2 e sin b ( b ≤ 90 ) 2 2 + p + 0.6 p 2 ε r2 2 Example: A CB link operates at 27 MHz with low gain antennas near the ground. Find the received power at the maximum flat Earth distance. The following parameters hold: Pt = 5 W; Gt = Gr = 1; ε r = 12 and σ = 5 × 10 − 3 S/m. The maximum flat Earth range is d max = 50 /( 27)1 / 3 = 16.5 miles. p= πd / λ 16.5 = 0.25 d / λ = 0.0225 (1000) ≈ 601 → 2 2 0.62 12 + (90 / 27) d = 4p λ 43 Naval Postgraduate School Antennas & Propagation Distance Learning Surface Waves (3) Check b to see if formula applies (otherwise use the chart on the next page) −1 (12 )(8.85 × 10 −12 )( 2π )( 27 × 10 6 ) o = 74 . 5 5 × 10 − 3 b = tan Attenuation constant As = 2 + 0.3 p 2 + p + 0.6 p 2 − p / 2 e −0.6 p sin b ≈ 8.33 × 10 −4 The received power for the ground wave is Pr = Pdir 2 As 2 = Pt Gt Aer 2 As 2 = ( Pt (1) λ2 / 4π 4π d 2 4π d 2 (5)(8.33 × 10 − 4 ) 2 −14 = = 1 . 52 × 10 W 2 2 (4π )( 4) (601) ) 2 As 2 44 Naval Postgraduate School Antennas & Propagation Distance Learning Surface Waves (4) FLAT EARTH Fig. 6.35 in R. E. Collin, Antennas and Radiowave Propagation, McGraw-Hill, 1985 45 Naval Postgraduate School Antennas & Propagation Distance Learning Ground Waves (5) SPHERICAL EARTH ( ε r = 15 and σ = 10 − 2 S/m) Fig. 6.36 in R. E. Collin, Antennas and Radiowave Propagation, McGraw-Hill, 1985 46 Naval Postgraduate School Antennas & Propagation Distance Learning Urban Propagation (1) Urban propagation is a unique and relatively new area of study. It is important in the design of cellular and mobile communication systems. A complete theoretical treatment of propagation in an urban environment is practically intractable. Many combinations of propagation mechanisms are possible, each with different paths. The details of the environment change from city to city and from block to block within a city. Statistical models are very effective in predicting propagation in this situation. In an urban or suburban environment there is rarely a direct path between the transmitting and receiving antennas. However there usually are multiple reflection and diffraction paths between a transmitter and receiver. • Reflections from objects close to the BASE STATION mobile antenna will cause multiple signals ANTENNA to add and cancel as the mobile unit moves. Almost complete cancellation can occur resulting in “deep fades.” These small-scale (on the order of tens of wavelengths) variations in the signal are MOBILE ANTENNA predicted by Rayleigh statistics. 47 Naval Postgraduate School Antennas & Propagation Distance Learning Urban Propagation (2) • On a larger scale (hundreds to thousands of wavelengths) the signal behavior, when measured in dB, has been found to be normally distributed (hence referred to a lognormal distribution). The genesis of the lognormal variation is the multiplicative nature of shadowing and diffraction of signals along rooftops and undulating terrain. • The Hata model is used most often for predicting path loss in various types of urban conditions. It is a set of empirically derived formulas that include correction factors for antenna heights and terrain. Path loss is the 1 / r 2 spreading loss in signal between two isotropic antennas. From the Friis equation, with Gt = G r = 4πAe / λ2 = 1 Pr (1)(1) λ2 1 Ls = = = 2 Pt 2 kr (4π r ) 2 Note that path loss is not a true loss of energy as in the case of attenuation. Path loss as defined here will occur even if the medium between the antennas is lossless. It arises because the transmitted signal propagates as a spherical wave and hence power is flowing in directions other than towards the receiver. 48 Naval Postgraduate School Antennas & Propagation Distance Learning Urban Propagation (3) Hata model parameters * : d = transmit/receive distance (1 ≤ d ≤ 20 km) f = frequency in MHz (100 ≤ f ≤ 1500 MHz) hb = base antenna height ( 30 ≤ hb ≤ 200 m) hm = mobile antenna height (1 ≤ hm ≤ 10 m) The median path loss is Lmed = 69.55 + 26.16 log( f ) − 13.82 log( hb ) + [44.9 − 6.55 log( hb ) ]log( d ) + a ( hm ) In a medium city: a ( hm ) = [0.7 − 1.1 log( f )]hm + 1.56 log( f ) − 0.8 1.1 − 8.29 log 2 (1.54hm ), f ≤ 200 MHz In a large city: a ( hm ) = 2 4.97 − 3.2 log (11.75hm ), f ≥ 400 MHz − 2 log 2 ( f / 28) − 5.4, suburban areas Correction factors: Lcor = 2 − 4.78 log ( f ) + 18.33 log( f ) − 40.94, open areas The total path loss is: Ls = Lmed − Lcor * Note: Modified formulas have been derived to extend the range of all parameters. 49 Naval Postgraduate School Antennas & Propagation Distance Learning Urban Propagation Simulation Urban propagation modeling using the wireless toolset Urbana (from Demaco/SAIC). Ray tracing (geometrical optics) is used along with the geometrical theory of diffraction (GTD) Closeup showing antenna placement (below) Carrier to Interference (C/I) ratio (right) 50 Naval Postgraduate School Antennas & Propagation Distance Learning Measured Data Two different antenna heights h = 2.7 m h = 1.6 m f = 3.35 GHz Measured data in an urban environment f = 8.45 GHz Three different frequencies f = 15.75 GHz From Masui, “Microwave Path Loss Modeling in Urban LOS Environments,” IEEE Journ. on Selected Areas in Comms., Vol 20, No. 6, Aug. 2002. 51 Naval Postgraduate School Antennas & Propagation Distance Learning Attenuation Due to Rain and Gases (1) Sources of signal attenuation in the atmosphere include rain, fog, water vapor and other gases. Most loss is due to absorption of energy by the molecules in the atmosphere. Dust, snow, and rain can also cause a loss in signal by scattering energy out of the beam. 52 Naval Postgraduate School Antennas & Propagation Distance Learning Attenuation Due to Rain and Gases (2) 53 Naval Postgraduate School Antennas & Propagation Distance Learning Attenuation Due to Rain and Gases (3) There is no complete, comprehensive macroscopic theoretical model to predict loss. A wide range of empirical formulas exist based on measured data. A typical model: A = aR b , attenuation in dB/km R is the rain rate in mm/hr a = Ga f GHz E a b = Gb f GHz Eb where the constants are determined from the following table: Ga = 6.39 × 10 − 5 = 4.21 × 10 − 5 = 4.09 × 10 − 2 E a = 2.03 = 2.42 = 0.699 Gb = 0.851 Eb = 0.158 = 1.41 = −0.0779 = 2.63 = −0.272 f GHz < 2.9 2.9 ≤ f GHz < 54 54 ≤ f GHz < 180 f GHz < 8.5 8.5 ≤ f GHz < 25 25 ≤ f GHz < 164 54 Naval Postgraduate School Antennas & Propagation Distance Learning Ionospheric Radiowave Propagation (1) The ionosphere refers to the upper regions of the atmosphere (90 to 1000 km). This region is highly ionized, that is, it has a high density of free electrons (negative charges) and positively charged ions. The charges have several important effects on EM propagation: 1. Variations in the electron density ( N e ) cause waves to bend back towards Earth, but only if specific frequency and angle criteria are satisfied. Some examples are shown below. Multiple skips are common thereby making global communication possible. N e max 4 IONOSPHERE 3 2 1 TX SKIP DISTANCE EARTH’S SURFACE 55 Naval Postgraduate School Antennas & Propagation Distance Learning Ionospheric Radiowave Propagation (2) 2. The Earth’s magnetic field causes the ionosphere to behave like an anisotropic medium. Wave propagation is characterized by two polarizations (“ordinary” and “extraordinary” waves). The propagation constants of the two waves are different. An arbitrarily polarized wave can be decomposed into these two polarizations upon entering the ionosphere and recombined on exiting. The recombined wave polarization will be different that the incident wave polarization. This effect is called Faraday rotation. The electron density distribution has the general characteristics shown on the next page. The detailed features vary with • • • • location on Earth, time of day, time of year, and sunspot activity. The regions around peaks in the density are referred to as layers. The F layer often splits into the F1 and F2 layers. 56 Naval Postgraduate School Antennas & Propagation Distance Learning Electron Density of the Ionosphere (Note unit is per cubic centimeter) 57 Naval Postgraduate School Antennas & Propagation Distance Learning The Earth’s Magnetosphere 58 Naval Postgraduate School Antennas & Propagation Distance Learning Ionospheric Radiowave Propagation (3) Relative dielectric constant of an ionized gas (assume electrons only): ω 2p εr =1 − ω (ω − jν ) where: ν = collision frequency (collisions per second) N ee 2 ωp = , plasma frequency (radians per second) mε o N e = electron density ( / m3 ) e = 1.59 × 10 −19 C, electron charge m = 9.0 × 10 − 31 kg, electron mass For the special case of no collions, ν = 0 and the corresponding propagation constant is k c = ω µoε rε o = ko 1 − ω 2p ω2 where ko = ω µoε o . 59 Naval Postgraduate School Antennas & Propagation Distance Learning Ionospheric Radiowave Propagation (4) Consider three cases: 1. ω > ω p : k c is real and e − jk c z = e − j k c z is a propagating wave 2. ω < ω p : k c is imaginary and e − jk c z = e − k c z is an evanescent wave 3. ω = ω p : k c = 0 and this value of ω is called the critical frequency, ωc At the critical frequency the wave is reflected. Note that ωc depends on altitude because the electron density is a function of altitude. For electrons, the highest frequency at which a reflection occurs is ω = ωc ⇒ ε r = 0 IONOSPHERE REFLECTION POINT ωc ≈ 9 N e max 2π Reflection at normal incidence requires the greatest N e . h′ TX fc = EARTH’S SURFACE 1 The critical frequency is where the propagation constant is zero. Neglecting the Earth’s magnetic field, this occurs at the plasma frequency, and hence the two terms are often used interchangeably. 60 Naval Postgraduate School Antennas & Propagation Distance Learning Ionospheric Radiowave Propagation (5) At oblique incidence, at a point of the ionosphere where the critical frequency is f c , the ionosphere can reflect waves of higher frequencies than the critical one. When the wave is incident from a non-normal direction, the reflection appears to occur at a virtual reflection point, h ′ , that depends on the frequency and angle of incidence. VIRTUAL HEIGHT IONOSPHERE h′ EARTH’S SURFACE TX SKIP DISTANCE 61 Naval Postgraduate School Antennas & Propagation Distance Learning Ionospheric Radiowave Propagation (6) To predict the bending of the ray we use a layered approximation to the ionosphere just as we did for the troposphere. ALTITUDE M z3 z2 z1 ψ2 ψ1 ψi ψ3 ε r ( z3 ) ε r (z2 ) ε r ( z1 ) LAYERED IONOSPHERE APPROXIMATION εr = 1 Snell’s law applies at each layer boundary sin ψ i = sin (ψ 1 ) ε r ( z1 ) = L The ray is turned back when ψ ( z ) = π / 2 , or sinψ i = ε r ( z ) 62 Naval Postgraduate School Antennas & Propagation Distance Learning Ionospheric Radiowave Propagation (7) Note that: 1. For constant ψ i , N e must increase with frequency if the ray is to return to Earth (because ε r decreases with ω ). 2. Similarly, for a given maximum N e ( N e max ), the maximum value of ψ i that results in the ray returning to Earth increases with increasing ω . There is an upper limit on frequency that will result in the wave being returned back to Earth. Given N e max the required relationship between ψ i and f can be obtained sin ψ i = ε r ( z) ω 2p 2 sin ψ i = 1 − 2 ω 81N e max 1 − cos 2 ψ i = 1 − f2 f 2 cos 2 ψ i N e max = ⇒ 81 f max = 81N e max cos2 ψ i 63 Naval Postgraduate School Antennas & Propagation Distance Learning Ionospheric Radiowave Propagation (8) Examples: 1. ψ i = 45o , N e max = 2 × 1010 / m 3 : f max = (81)(2 × 1010 ) /(0 .707) 2 = 1.8 MHz 2. ψ i = 60o , N e max = 2 × 1010 / m 3 : f max = (81)( 2 × 1010 ) /(0.5) 2 = 2.5 MHz The value of f that makes ε r = 0 for a given value of N e max is the critical frequency defined earlier: f c = 9 N e max Use the N e max expression from previous page and solve for f f = 9 N e max secψ i = f c secψ i This is called the secant law or Martyn’s law. When secψ i has its maximum value, the frequency is called the maximum usable frequency (MUF). A typical value is less than 40 MHz. It can drop as low as 25 MHz during periods of low solar activity. The optimum usable frequency (OUF) is 50% to 80% of the MUF. 64 Naval Postgraduate School Antennas & Propagation Distance Learning Maximum Usable Frequency The maximum usable frequency (MUF) in wintertime for different skip distances. The MUF is lower in the summertime. Fig. 6.43 in R. E. Collin, Antennas and Radiowave Propagation, McGraw-Hill, 1985 65 Naval Postgraduate School Antennas & Propagation Distance Learning Ionospheric Radiowave Propagation (9) Multiple hops allow for very long range communication links (transcontinental). Using a simple flat Earth model, the virtual height ( h ′ ), incidence angle (ψ i ), and skip distance (d ) d are related by tanψ i = . This implies that the wave is launched well above the horizon. 2h ′ However, if a spherical Earth model is used and the wave is launched on the horizon then d = 2 2 Re′ h′ . EFFECTIVE SPECULAR REFLECTION POINT IONOSPHERE IONOSPHERE h′ ψi TX d Single ionospheric hop (flat Earth) EARTH’S SURFACE Multiple ionospheric hops (curved Earth) 66 Naval Postgraduate School Antennas & Propagation Distance Learning Ionospheric Radiowave Propagation (10) Approximate virtual heights for layers of the ionosphere Layer F2 F1 F E Range for h ′ (km) 250 to 400 (day) 200 to 250 (day) 300 (night) 110 Example: Based on geometry, a rule of thumb for the maximum incidence angle on the ionosphere is about 74 o . The MUF is MUF = f c sec(74 o ) = 3.6 f c For N e max = 1012 / m 3 , f c ≈ 9 MHz and the MUF = 32.4 MHz. For reflection from the F2 layer, h ′ ≈ 300 km. The maximum skip distance will be about d max ≈ 2 2 Re′ h ′ = 2 2(8500 × 10 3 )(300 × 10 3 ) = 4516 km 67 Naval Postgraduate School Department of Electrical & Computer Engineering Monterey, California Ionospheric Radiowave Propagation (7) 1 + h ′ / Re′ − cosθ 1 = sin θ tanψ i where d θ= 2 Re′ For a curved Earth, using the law of sines for a triangle R/2 ψi R/2 h′ and the launch angle (antenna pointing angle above the horizon) is ∆ = φ − 90 o = 90 o − θ −ψ i ∆ φ d/2 LAUNCH ANGLE: o o ∆ = 90 −θ −ψ i = φ − 90 Re′ θ The great circle path via the reflection point is R, which can be obtained from R= 2 Re′ sin θ sin ψ i 68 Naval Postgraduate School Department of Electrical & Computer Engineering Monterey, California Ionospheric Radiowave Propagation (8) Example: Ohio to Europe skip (4200 miles = 6760 km). Can it be done in one hop? To estimate the hop, assume that the antenna is pointed on the horizon. The virtual height required for the total distance is d / 2 = Re′ θ → θ = d / (2 Re′ ) = 0.3976 rad = 22.8 degrees ( Re′ + h ′) cos θ = Re′ → h ′ = Re′ /cosθ − Re′ = 720 km This is above the F layer and therefore two skips must be used. Each skip will be half of the total distance:. Repeating the calculation for d / 2 = 1690 km gives θ = d / (2 Re′ ) = 0.1988 rad = 11.39 degrees h ′ = Re′ /cosθ − Re′ = 171 km This value lies somewhere in the F layer. We will use 300 km (a more typical value) in computing the launch angle. That is, still keep d / 2 = 1690 km and θ = 11.39 degrees, but point the antenna above the horizon to the virtual reflection point at 300 km 300 tanψ i = sin(11.39 o ) 1 + − cos(11.39 o ) 8500 −1 → ψ i = 74.4 o 69 Naval Postgraduate School Department of Electrical & Computer Engineering Monterey, California Ionospheric Radiowave Propagation (9) The actual launch angle required (the angle that the antenna beam should be pointed above the horizon) is launch angle, ∆ = 90 o − θ − ψ i = 90 o − 11.39 o − 74.4 o = 4.21o The electron density at this height (see chart, p.3) is N e max ≈ 5× 1011 / m 3 which corresponds to the critical frequency f c ≈ 9 N e max = 6.36 MHz and a MUF of MUF ≈ 6.36 sec 74.4 o = 23.7 MHz Operation in the international short wave 16-m band would work. This example is oversimplified in that more detailed knowledge of the state of the ionosphere would be necessary: time of day, time of year, time within the solar cycle, etc. These data are available from published charts. 70 Naval Postgraduate School Department of Electrical & Computer Engineering Monterey, California Ionospheric Radiowave Propagation (10) Generally, to predict the received signal a modified Friis equation is used: Pr = Pt Gt G r (4πR / λ ) 2 Lx Lα where the losses, in dB, are negative: L x = Lpol + Lrefl − Giono Lrefl = reflection loss if there are multiple hops Lpol = polarization loss due to Faraday rotation and earth reflections Giono = gain due to focussing by the curvature of the ionosphere Lα = absorption loss R = great circle path via the virtual reflection point Example: For Pt = 30 dBW, f = 10 MHz, Gt = G r = 10 dB, d = 2000 km, h ′ = 300 km, L x = 9.5 dB and Lα = 30 dB (data obtained from charts). From geometry compute: ψ i = 70.3o , R = 2117.8 km, and thus Pr = −108.5 dBw 71 Naval Postgraduate School Antennas & Propagation Distance Learning Ducts and Nonstandard Refraction (1) Ducts in the atmosphere are caused by index of refraction rates of decrease with height over short distances that cause rays to bend back towards the surface. TOP OF DUCT EARTH’S SURFACE TX • The formation of ducts is due primarily to water vapor, and therefore they tend to occur over bodies of water (but not land-locked bodies of water) • They can occur at the surface or up to 5000 ft (elevated ducts) • Thickness ranges from a meter to several hundred meters • The trade wind belts have a more or less permanent duct of about 1 to 5 m thickness • Efficient propagation occurs for UHF frequencies and above if both the transmitter and receiver are located in the duct • If the transmitter and receiver are not in the duct, significant loss can occur before coupling into the duct 72 Naval Postgraduate School Antennas & Propagation Distance Learning Ducts and Nonstandard Refraction (2) Because variations in the index of refraction are so small, a quantity called the refractivity is used N ( h) = [n( h) − 1]10 6 n (h ) = ε r ( h) In the normal (standard) atmosphere the gradient of the vertical refractive index is linear with height, dN / dh ≈ −39 N units/km. If dN / dh < −157 then rays will return to the surface. Rays in the three Earth models are shown below. True Earth Re Equivalent Earth (Standard Atmosphere) Re′ Flat Earth ∞ From Radiowave Propagation, Lucien Boithias, McGraw-Hill 73 Naval Postgraduate School Department of Electrical & Computer Engineering Monterey, California Ducts and Nonstandard Refraction (3) Another quantity used to solve ducting problems is the modified refractivity M (h ) = N ( h ) + 10 6 (h / Re′ ) In terms of M, the condition for ducting is dM /dh = dN / dh + 157 . Other values of dN / dh (or dM / dh ) lead to several types of refraction as summarized in the following figure and table. They are: 1. Super refraction: The index of refraction decrease is more rapid than normal and the ray curves downward at a greater rate 2. Substandard refraction (subrefraction): The index of refraction decreases less rapidly than normal and there is less downward curvature than normal From Radiowave Propagation, Lucien Boithias, McGraw-Hill 74 Naval Postgraduate School Department of Electrical & Computer Engineering Monterey, California Ducts and Nonstandard Refraction (4) Summary of refractivity and ducting conditions dN / dh >0 0 dN 0> > −39 dh -39 dN − 39 > > − 157 dh Ray Curvature κ up none <1 1 down >1 4/3 > 4/3 Atmospheric Refraction below normal normal Horizontally Launched Ray more convex actual less convex moves away from Earth above normal plane parallel to Earth super-refraction concave draws closer to Earth -157 < -157 Virtual Earth 75