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INTRODUCTION TO INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION AND INTERCULTURAL RELATIONS
Communication can be described as the transmission of information by means of systems of signs or
symbols. The most important sign system in human communication is of course language. Language
consists of forms - sounds, words, sentences etc. - with distinct meanings. These meaning are agreed
among the people who share a particular language and culture, i.e. they are cultural products. As
meanings are culture-dependent, and culture is in turn dependent on language for its dissemination,
connections between linguistic structures, their meanings, and culture can be assumed. For
example, it has been argued that dialectical thinking in Chinese culture - assumed to be more
pronounced than in Western cultures - is reflected in particular forms and meanings of the Chinese
vocabulary (Document 1 ). The fact that meanings are conventionalised does not mean that they are
always clear or they are not subject to interpretation. This does not prevent successful
communication as long as interpretations of meanings are shared among the users of a particular
language. This can be ensured by convention or regulation, for example, "Political Correctness".
These conventions may, however, apply differently in different cultures, even if they use the same
language, as is illustrated in Document 2, describing how an expression used by an English person
caused offence in the USA. When different languages are involved in intercultural communication,
these difficulties are of course greatly amplified due to the fact that not all users of a particular
language have the same level of competence in that language, and, in many cases, communication is
dependent on translation. In translating from one language to another, it is usually very difficult if
not impossible to find words or to create sentences or texts in another language which accurately
express the meanings of the original. See Document 3 on the difficulties of translating from Japanese
into English, Document 4 on translation mistakes from English into Italian in an official EU document,
and Document 5 on the challenges of translating metaphors between Mandarin Chinese and English.
Document 6 illustrates the pitfalls of translation through a number of mistranslated messages (from
various Asian languages into English) on public signs. Additional communication difficulties may arise
from the fact that some languages may have expressions for certain meanings or concepts which
cannot be substituted, as the concepts they express may not even exist in other languages, or the
related vocabulary of those languages may be less complex or varied in expressing those meanings.
See, for example, Document 7 on the range of vocabulary available for the expression of emotion in
Russian, for which there is no equivalent choice of words in English. Frequently, languages adopt
words or expressions ("loan words") from other languages to enrich their own vocabulary or to
replace existing words with expressions from other languages which may seem more useful or
attractive. This may, however, not always be acceptable to all users of that language, as is illustrated
in Document 8, which discusses problems arising from the incorporation of English words into the
vocabulary of Mandarin Chinese. Transfers of words or expressions do not only take place between
different languages, but also within the same language if used by different cultures. See Documents
9 and 10 on the adoption of American expressions in British English and vice versa, and associated
debates about the acceptability of these changes. Sometimes the influence of one language on
another can lead to language mixing or the creation of new expressions which are rooted in both
languages, as illustrated in Document 11, which discusses the nature of "Hinglish", a variety of
English used in India.
-2Human communication usually involves other types of sign systems in addition to language, resulting
in "multimedia" messages. These sign systems are, for example, various types of visual signs such
as personal appearance, body language, still or moving images. See Document 12 for a discussion of
politicians' body language, Document 13 on the communicative value of politicians' dress sense, and
Document 14 on the message value of famous footballers' tattoos. In intercultural situations, the
interpretation of visual signs will depend on attitudes and values prevalent in different cultures, and
these differences may be a source of misunderstanding or conflict. An example of an image causing
intercultural conflict is Document 15, describing how a British tourist was deported from Sri Lanka
for wearing a Buddha tattoo. Document 16 describes how images of women were altered by Iranian
state TV, and Document 17 reports images of animals being altered in the Malaysian media for
religious reasons.
Communication can also be understood as social interaction or social behaviour, i.e. what people
"are doing" and aiming to achieve when they communicate. Document 18 explains how even an
absence of action can be interpreted as constituting communication. In intercultural situations,
behaviours will differ depending on cultural background, and certain behaviours which may be
conventional and acceptable in one culture may be misunderstood or even cause offence in another.
Documents 19 and 20 describe different attitudes to politeness and indirect communication in
different cultures, and how these behaviours can lead to misunderstanding or conflict if not
recognized as culture-specific. Document 21 describes cultural differences in the expression of
personal opinions, which are very strongly expressed in some cultures but more cautiously in others,
and Document 22 illustrates cultural differences in the expression of emotions. Document 23
illustrates cultural differences in humour comprehension, and Documents 24 and 25 describe how
what is perceived as humorous in certain cultures can cause offence in others. They concern the
publication of cartoons of the Prophet Mohammed in the Danish media which caused offence and
outrage among parts of the global Muslim community. Document 26 shows how certain things said
by men to women may be considered as sexual harassment in some cultures but not in others, and
Document 27 illustrates how a particular way of addressing a person may be acceptable in one
culture but considered a racist offence in another. Documents 28 and 29 describe cultural
differences in business communication: Document 28 illustrates how people from different cultures
present themselves differently at job interviews, and how this can cause misunderstandings, and
Document 29 discusses how culture-specific behavioural conventions are reflected in different
approaches to business negotiations.
In order to understand communicative interactions, the contexts or circumstances have to be taken
into account in which communication takes place. Such contexts include, for example, situational
circumstances such as the people involved in events and their attitudes, intentions or expectations,
relationships between them, or communication channels (e.g. email vs. face-to-face). In addition to
situational contexts, communication depends on a range of background contexts, the most
fundamental of which is of course culture. An important way in which culture informs
communication is the extent to which contexts as such are taken into account, as is explained in
Document 30, which discusses differences between so-called "High Context" and "Low Context"
cultures. Examples of how specific background contexts, for example politics and legislation, affect
intercultural communication are Documents 31 and 32, which concern internet censorship in China,
and Document 33, which describes the Chinese government's reaction to call for more internet
freedom by the US. The impact of the internet as a context of intercultural communication is
discussed in Document 34, which raises the question whether the internet really is a liberating force
in global communication. Document 35 describes differences between the legal systems of France
and the UK in relation to news coverage of celebrity scandals.
-3Communication as symbolic interaction is of course fundamental to human relations, but, at the
same time, human relations depend on conditions and processes beyond communication.
Whenever different cultural groups, for example nations, social, ethnic, or religious groups, interact,
intercultural relations exist. Frequently, in order to reduce complexity in understanding cultural
groups, and to create an - illusionary - sense of understanding, simplified characterisations of
groups, or stereotypes, are created. Stereotypes may be figmental, i.e. they may arise from
imaginary traits attributed to others, or they may be based on factual evidence, but extended by
generalisation so as to create an unrealistic perception of that group. In addition to simplification,
frequently, stereotypes serve to distinguish between groups in order to create an enhanced sense of
group identity. Document 36 illustrates widely held stereotypes of some European nations, and
Document 37 discusses a stereotypical representation of Asian people in a British sitcom.
Documents 38 - 41 discuss autostereotypes (stereotypes which cultural groups hold about
themselves): Document 38 represents an autostereotype of Scotland, which is discussed in detail in
Document 39. Documents 40 and 41 represent autostereotypes of Britain as created by politicians
and in the media. If stereotypes are combined with positive or negative attitudes and value
judgements towards other groups, they constitute prejudice. Documents 42 and 43 discuss
psychological processes and conditions which can lead to prejudice. Within any given society, the
existence of different cultural groups is tied up with the question to what extent cultural diversity
should be tolerated or to what extent cultural groups - usually minorities - should be required to
adapt or assimilate into the majority culture. Toleration of cultural diversity, or multiculturalism, is a
contentious political issue in many countries. See Document 44 on a speech by David Cameron
which is critical of the concept of multiculturalism, Document 45 on reactions to the Prime Minister's
views by ethnic minority organisations in the UK, and Document 46 on global reactions to the
speech. Document 47 compares attitudes towards multiculturalism in the UK to those in Germany
and various other European countries. Cultural diversity is an inevitable consequence of migration,
which is an equally contentious political topic in many countries. See Document 48 concerning the
rise of right-wing anti-immigration and racist parties across Europe, Document 49 for a discussion of
critical attitudes towards immigration within the UK, Document 50 for Nigel Farage's arguments
against immigration, and Document 51 for Tony Blair's warnings against xenophobic prejudice in the
UK. Documents 52 and 53 discuss accusations of prejudice against the British police in dealing with
with Black and Asian minorities. Documents 54, 55 and 56 discuss relations between the Muslim
community in the UK and the British government: Document 54 describes the discussion around the
so-called "Islamification" of certain schools in England, Document 55 argues that the Muslim
community in the UK needs to do more to uphold British values, and, in Document 56, a Muslim
teacher defends his view that schools should meet the cultural needs of the majority of its pupils.
Documents 57, 58 and 59 discuss relationships between Muslims and non-Muslims and attitudes
towards religious minorities across Europe. Document 60 describes the influence of Orthodox
churches in various Eastern European countries in relation to nationalism and the treatment of
ethnic, religious and LGBT minorities in those countries.