Download DARWINISM - The theory attributed to Charles Darwin (1809

DARWINISM - The theory attributed to Charles Darwin (1809-82) which posits that
all biological organisms evolve through natural selection, a scientific term which
essentially means that certain species will survive over others because they are better
suited to a particular environment. For instance, as different species are struggling to
survive in a particular ecosystem, Nature herself, in a sense, selects those species
which are the fittest to survive. Although the mechanism for evolutive change has not
dogmatically been detected, the original theories of Charles Darwin have been
changed into what is called neo-Darwinism. Note the following to see the differences
between the theory of Charles Darwin, and the new hypothesis set forth by his
successors :
DASEIN - Literally, a German word meaning " being there." The term Dasein was a
technical term used by the twentieth century philosopher Martin Heidegger (18891976 .)
DASEIN: German for being there (Heidegger) of being in the world and it
relatedness; features: (1) factuality; (2) existentiality; (3) fallenness (not being
authentic- nonunique .)
DEATH OF GOD - A phrase made famous by the philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche
(1844-1900) in his works " The Joyful Science" and "Thus Spake Zarathustra." In the
former work, the death of God is considered to be the greatest deed ever wrought by
mankind. Note the words of Nietzsche, in this respect: "Where has God gone? I shall
tell you. We have killed him - you and I. We are all his murderers . . . GOD IS
DEAD. That which was holiest and mightiest of all that the world has yet possessed
has bled to death under our knives. There has never been a greater deed" (The Joyful
Science). Nietzsche's philosophy takes its departure from this idea of the death of
God. For Nietzsche, Christianity is nothing more than a dungeon that glorifies
weakness and inhibits the stronger virtues which his philosophy extols. Essentially,
humanity is a transitional phase between animality to that of the superman (
Ubermensch) of the future. Thus, man must propel himself into the future by
abolishing the idea of God (or divine rule), and instead create a new value structure
upon which he can build a new world .
DEATH OF GOD THEOLOGY - A movement which flourished in the United States
between the 1960s and 1970s, essentially promoting the idea that the "God
hypothesis" is antiquated and defunct. It was asserted that intelligent individuals did
not invoke God anymore, and that scientific principles have become the explanatory
mechanism of the universe .
DECIDIBILITY: A (logical) language is said to be decidable if and only if all of its
theorems (or logical truths) can be shown to be true through a finite mechanical
procedure. Propositional logic is decidable; predicate logic is not .
DEDUCTION The type of argument or inference whereby the conclusion is claimed
necessarily to follow from the premise. A presumably valid argument in which the
argument proceeds from premises to conclusion in such a way that if the premisses
are true, the conclusion absolutely must be true. An inductive argument is one that
does not meet this standard, its premisses giving at best some assurance, but not
complete assurance, to its conclusion. Reasoning in which the premises, if true,
guarantee the truth of the conclusion. Example, "All cats are mortal; Bill is a cat;
therefore, Bill is mortal." Not all deduction is "from general to particular," as is
sometimes said. Nevertheless, the deduction of predictions of particular observable
events from general hypotheses in order to test the hypotheses, is scientifically quite
central. Contrast: induction. See also: logic, hypothetical deductive method .
DEDUCTIVE LOGIC: uses arguments which have conclusions that necessarily
follow from the premise (s .)
In example: (1) All men are mortal .
)2(
Socrates is a human .
______________________
Therefore, Socrates is mortal .
DEFINITION - That which distinguishes something (object, substance, concept, idea,
etc.) from everything else .
DEISM - A belief or doctrine which asserts that God exists as transcendent creator,
yet He plays no immanent role in the creation, especially in any supernatural or
providential sense. Many Enlightenment thinkers, as well as American founding
fathers (e.g., Thomas Paine, Thomas Jefferson, et al.) were deists .
DEISM - The world view that God is only transcendent (beyond) the world but not
immanent (acting) in the world .
DEMIURGE - A Greek term, meaning "craftsman." The Demiurge is a concept which
originates in the thought of Plato (427-347 BC). In his work, Timaeus, the Demiurge
is essentially the maker of the physical universe. The notion was acknowledged by
Gnosticism as well, as they emphasized the idea of cosmological dualism, or the idea
that there is a spiritual realm which is good and pure, and there is a material realm
which is evil. In Gnosticism, the material universe was not created by the Supreme
God (i.e., the God of the New Testament), but rather, by the Demiurge, an inferior
deity (in some systems, an evil being) who is identified with the Old Testament
YHWH .
DEMOCRACY: Form of government in which the people rule, either by directly
voting on issues (direct democracy), or indirectly through electing representative to
decide issues (representative democracy .)
DEONTOLOGICAL ETHICS - In contrast to utilitarianism, deontological ethics
focuses on the concept of moral obligation and duty, regardless of the outcome.
Duty-based or rule based ethical systems, such as the Golden Rule (do to others as
you would have them to do you). An action's worth is determined by whether or not
the rule is followed. The rules are intended to be universal laws, applicable to
everyone at all times. It is everyone's duty to follow the rules. ( deon means duty )
DEONTOLOGICAL: [De=obligation + logical] A deontological ethics is one that
claims that it is something in the natue or structure of actions that makes them
obligatory or impermissable (essentially ignoring consequences). Kant’s categorical
imperative (“act so that the maxim of your action could be a law for all rational
beings”) is often though to be a deontological rule. Kant once remarked that if a killer
asks where your friend is, you have to tell him the truth. See teleological .
DESIGN ARGUMENT - see teleological argument.
DETERMINISM - In contrast to freewill, The Doctrine of Determinism asserts that
all human actions are predetermined. The debate between determinism and freewill
has been ongoing for centuries, and the fields of psychology, philosophy, and
theology have all been involved in the debate. The theory that the universe is so
constructed that everything occurs as the inevitable consequence of antecedent causes .
DETERMINISM the claim that human agents are wholly subect to the laws of nature.
Determinists may hold either (1) that human agents are without freedom of will or
action, or (2) that human freedom consists in being determined in a certain way (e.g.,
by one's own desires). The theory that every event has a cause .
DHAMMAPADA: A collection of the sayings of Buddha, 423 verses written in Pali,
the ancient language of Theravada Buddhism. Translated into English in 1898 by Max
Muller, a German scholar at Britain's Oxford University generally acknowledged as
the father of the scientific study of comparative religions .
DHARMA: A Buddhist term for sublime religious truth or any experience associated
with that truth. Hinduism also uses the term to describe individual virtue or the
obligations to the divine and to others that are part of that virtue. Term was co-opted
by so-called "Beat" writers of the 20th century who often called themselves, after a
title from the writer Jack Kerouac, "The Dharma Bums ".
DHYANA: The Sanskrit word meaning "meditation," from which is derived the word
Zen .
DIALECTIC - According to Hegel (1770-1831), dialectic is simply the logical pattern
of thought, the overall pattern being thesis, antithesis, and synthesis. Thus, thought
proceeds by contradiction ( thesis/antithesis), and is then reconciled by a fusion of the
contradictory ideas ( synthesis). In Hegelian dialectic, the doctrine of the Holy Trinity
perfectly exemplifies this process of logic :
Thesis >>> God is one .
Antithesis >>> God is three .
Synthesis >>> God is triune .
The process, particularly employed in Plato’s dialogues, of discovering first
principles, or underlying realities, through digging out, possibly through Socratic
questioning of another, what is presupposed by our common sense beliefs about, and
experience of, the world. The Socratic, or negative, dialectic would be one practiced
in the early dialogues where the demolition of wrong opinions is all that is desired;
the Platonic dialectic proper would aim at also unearthing supersensory realities
(Platonic universals). The Hegelian dialectic is a process through which mind (or
reason) moves through history, acting and reacting, toward some final resolution; the
Marxist dialectic sees this historical process as fundamentally economic, and material,
in character .
DIANETICS: Book published in 1950 by science fiction writer L. Ron Hubbard that
forms the primary text of the Church of Scientology. See Church of Scientology .
DIASPORA: The scattering of a nation's people among several other nations, often
after conquest. More specifically this refers to the scattering of the Jews following the
destruction of the Temple at Jerusalem both in 597 B.C. and in 70 A.D .
DIOCESE, DIOCESAN: An administrative unit of the Christian church that is under
the authority of a bishop and usually defined by geographical boundaries. This term is
used by more formal Christian denominations such as the Episcopal Church. Less
liturgical and episcopal churches might use a term such as district to refer to a similar
administrative unit .
DISCIPLE: A follower; a convinced believer to the point of commitment of one's life
to the object of worship. Every great religious leader attracted to him- or herself
disciples who helped to spread the message of the leader. In Christianity, the word is
reserved for followers of Jesus, especially the 12 original followers whom Jesus
called to work with him and the one who replaced the betraying disciple. These 12
are exclusively referred to from among the disciples as the sent ones, or the apostles.
Commissioned by Jesus to spread his Word, the original disciples became known as
the 12 Apostles ..
DOCTRINE: A systematized principle or body of principles related to a branch of
belief. Any teaching or instruction regarding a particular religious faith. A statement
of a widely held policy or belief. In religion, all believers are defined by their
adherence to particular doctrines about God, nature, the world and human activity.
Ultimately, it is doctrine that separates one faith from another or one branch from
another within a particular religion. Compare dogma .
DOCUMENTARY HYPOTHESIS:A theory of scholars of the Bible that several
different writers contributed to the first five books of the Bible (the Torah or the
Pentateuch), and that a redactor or editor gathered the documents into their final form.
The theory was proposed by 18th century German theology professor Julius
Wellhausen, and is sometimes called the Graf-Wellhausen hypothesis (K.H. Graf was
an Old Testament scholar upon whose research Wellhausen built his theory). Four
sources are identified in the documentary hypothesis: The J-source (or Y-source), or
Jehovahic source (or Yahwist source); the E-source, or the Elohist source; the Psource, or the Priestly source; and the D-source, or the Deuteronomic redactor source.
These are abbreviated by biblical scholars as J,E,P and D or sometimes as Y,E,P and
D (The English translation of Jahwist, Wellhausen's German term, is Yahwist). This
hypothesis challenges the traditional view that Moses was the author of the first five
books of the Bible, a view that continues among many conservative Jews and
Christians .
DOGMA: A principle or doctrine that is authoritatively pronounced by a church or a
leader, generally without widespread debate, investigation or discussion. Often dogma
is differentiated from doctrine by its being based upon authority without investigative
evidence. Compare DOCTRINE. In modern parlance, dogma is frequently seen as a
denigrating or pejorative term, though within certain religious traditions it is
perceived as authoritative to the faithful .
DOMINICAN: An order of Roman Catholic priests and preachers founded by the
Spanish Saint Dominic in the
DUALISM - The distinction of two essential and co-existing components in one
system, i.e., in religious world views, the belief that God is composed of two
opposing parts that exist eternally and together are the constituents of God. ("God
contains both positive and negative forces, good and evil, male and female, spirit and
matter, etc.") The idea that there is a distinction between spirit and matter. Opposed to
monism.
DUALISM: In Hindu and Buddhist philosophy a state of non-dual awareness is
sought though meditation and similar practices, this is a state where beingness or
consciousness extends to include all existence. Dualism in this context is considered
to be the barriers between self and the rest of exisstance .
DUALIST: one who believes that there is a duality of substances, or that there are
two substances in the universe (i.e. material and immaterial substance .)
DUTY: What an individual is obliged to, or ought to do. If an individual has a duty to
do X it is not permissible for them not to do X; and if they have a duty not to do X
then it is not permissible for them to do it. Kant believed the commands of morality,
being categorical, create perfect duties allowing no exceptions. Nonmoral
imperatives, on the other hand, being hypothetical, create imperfect duties which
allow of exceptions. See categorical imperative, hypothetical imperative .
ECUMENISM: A modern theological and social term refering to an effort to unite
diverse viewpoints into a single Christian vision. The name is taken from the Greek
word for "all the inhabited world." The adjectival form, ECUMENICAL, is often
linked to a 20th-century religious movement to bring a variety of denominations
under a single Christian umbrella such as represented by the World Council of
Churches .
EDEN: According to the account in the first book of the Hebrew Scriptures (known as
Genesis), Eden is the name given to the idyllic garden wherein the first man, Adam,
and the first woman, Eve, were placed after being created by the Lord God. Often the
term is used as a synonym or symbolic representation of paradise. When Adam and
Eve were driven from the garden after sinning against the Lord, Eden also took on the
tragic overtones of banishment and lostness for humankind .
EGOISTIC HEDONISM: the doctrine that the pursuit of one's own pleasure is the
highest good and the criterion of right action. Bentham revived hedonism with his act
utilitarianism in the late 18th century. But that is for the chapter on Utilitarianism .
EIGHTFOLD PATH: In Buddhism, the steps that enable one to overcome craving
and attachment. See Four Noble Truths .
ELDER: A term generally used to describe leaders of a religious denomination.
Usually elders are older, experienced and more learned members of a congregation.
Several Christian denominations, most notably the Presbyterians and the
Congregationalists, give this title to the group of lay people who run the everyday
operation of the church and assist the clergy in worship. Prior to the mid-twentieth
century, the role of elder in most congregations was exclusively a male role .
EMANATION - In connection with Neoplatonism (ca. AD 250-500), all of reality is
an emanation (i.e., a continual flowing out) from the One (i.e., God). There is a
process of denigration in this continual flowing out. First, nous (mind), then soul, then
matter, matter being the furthest emanation from the One. Since man is a material
emanation, his purpose is to reject the material world and instead embrace the
spiritual. In this way, he "turns back" to the One and contemplates his divine origin .
EMINENTLY: degree, or pre-eminent manner ( a priori knowledge of causality .)
EMPIRICAL concerned with what is given in sense experience or, by extension, with
what belongs to the subject matter or the methodology of (modern) natural science.
EMPIRICAL: Based on experience, or observation - describing knowledge derived
from or warranted by sense perception. Compare: a posteriori. Contrast: a priori .
EMPIRICISM - Empiricism is essentially a theory of knowledge which asserts that all
knowledge is derived from sense experience. It rejects the notion that the mind is
furnished with a range of concepts or ideas prior to experience. In the thought of John
Locke (1632-1704), the human mind is a tabula rasa (i.e., a blank tablet) at birth; thus,
knowledge is acquired as the mind experiences external reality through the senses.
Three principal British philosophers who are associated with empiricism are John
Locke (1632-1704), George Berkeley (1685-1753), and David Hume (1711-76 .)
EMPIRICISM - The theory that our only source of knowledge about reality is
experience, specifically, sense experience. The philosophical tradition beginning in
the C17 and extending to the present day, predominantly British, which regards
knowledge in general as derived from and dependent on sense experience. Central
figures are Locke, Berkeley and Hume. Francis Bacon, an earlier philosophical figure,
may also be included, and important proponents of empiricism are found also in C18
French philosophy. The view that all human knowledge is acquired from sense
experience (via the 5 senses: touch, taste, smell, hearing, and sight) or a posteriori
which is Latin for "that which follows after." All knowledge is acquired after sensible
experience, or post-experientially .
EMPIRICIST: Specifically, a British philosopher of the 17th and 18th centruy such as
Hobbes, tended to believe that knowledge derives from our sensory experience and its
ramifications. Berkely and Hume, in particular, maintained (as nominalists) that the
mind has no essentially abstract, rational ideas of the sort that were supposed to form
the basis of science for the rationalist (which see along with neo-empiricist and neorationalist .)
END: That which is sought, or the object of pursuit. Aristotle maintains that all our
pursuits aim ultimately at ends that are sought or desired intrinsically, i.e. for their
own sakes, and that the greatest of these intrinsic goods is happiness. Things sought
not for their own sake but for the sake of something else are desired extrinsically or
instrumentally, as means .
ENLIGHTENMENT ( or AGE OF REASON) - The Enlightenment was a
philosophical movement which took place in the eighteenth century, representing a
culmination of the humanistic spirit of the Renaissance (ca. 1350-1600) and the
results of the scientific revolution which had begun with the work of Copernicus,
Galileo, Bacon, and Newton. Essentially, for many thinkers, the Enlightenment
represented a radical break from the medieval period (i.e. the Dark Ages) and ushered
in a new age of reason. From the perspective of religion (especially Christianity), the
Enlightenment accelerated the secularization of Western culture, liberating society
from the firm authority of the Church and biblical concepts. Thus, reason became
ascendant over the authority of revelation, and mankind was now moving away from
Christian theism toward a new era of humanism. Historically, the term refers to the
social, cultural and political movement which took place in the major centres of
cosmopolitan life in European cities in C18, which promulgated ideas of political
freedom, religious tolerance, opposition to the authority of the Church, the importance
of increasing scientific knowledge, and historical progress. More abstractly, it refers
to the philosophical ideal which the thinkers of that period articulated, namely of life
and activity in accordance with universal human reason, as opposed to tradition,
dogma or superstition.
ENTELECHY: A thing's potential realized. The end toward which one strives to
achieve or actualize, which is in all things in nature. It is also the combination of the
life force ( anima) with the body; which strives to actualize its full potential .
EPICUREANISM - In Acts 17:18 we find the Apostle Paul encountering a group of
Epicurean (and Stoic) philosophers in Athens. In essence, Epicureanism was the
philosophy of Epicurus (341-270 BC), and it posited the notion that the goal of man is
to live a life of pleasure and happiness. It rejected outright hedonism (selfgratification in any form) for a more tempered ethical hedonism . In sum, ethical
hedonism simply consisted of living a life of peace and tranquility, valuing
friendships , avoiding excess, avoiding pain, and avoiding any fear of death.
Accordng to Epicureanism, ethical hedonism this was the key to happiness. It is
probable that Paul was referring to Epicureanism in 1 Cor 15:32, where he wrote,
"Eat, drink, and be merry, for tomorrow we die".
EPIPHANY (EPIPHANY): A Greek term meaning "manifestation." In the Christian
tradition, it refers to the manifestation of Christ as a human and is celebrated on the
sixth of January, which marks the beginning of the season of Epiphany. The holiday is
more important in Eastern Orthodoxy, where it marks the Baptism of Jesus as well as
the visit of the Magi to the side of the infant Jesus. The evening prior to the Feast of
the Epiphany is known as the "Twelfth Night," marking the twelve days of Christmas
that began with the day of Jesus' birth. Technically, in the Christian church calendar,
Epiphany marks the end of the Christmas season. In a broader sense, an epiphany
refers to any sign or manifestation of the divine to humankind .
EPIPHENOMENALISM: the view that all reality is a product of material causation.
All substance is material in nature. The mind is the only exception. Although it is not
composed of material, or, its intellect is not material substance, it is a consequent
effect of material causation. Mind is not reduced to matter in this view of
materialism .
EPISTEMOLOGY - The branch of philosophy which is concerned with the theory of
knowledge, or more specifically, the question, "How can we know?" The theory of
knowledge; how we know we know; the study and acquisition of knowledge. The
branch of philosophy which deals with our knowledge of things: with the conditions,
if there are any, under which things can be known, and with the different forms which
knowledge takes (see a priori / a posteriori: this is an epistemological distinction).
Epistemology is concerned with the problem of justifying claims to knowledge in
general or in some particular domain, such as science or morality (philosophers talk of
'moral epistemology', meaning the study of the conditions under which moral facts, if
there are any, can be known). Thus the primary task for epistemology is to refute
skepticism, the position that nothing can be known. Epistemology is therefore
distinguished from psychology, which merely tries to ascertain the facts about the
mental processes which take place when something is known: epistemology is
concerned with questions of justification. Contrasts with metaphysics and ontology.
EPISTEMOLOGY: is the study of knowledge. How do we know? ( episteme =
knowledge; logos = the study of). The theory of knowledge or branch of philosophy
that studies how knowledge is gained, how much we can know, and what justification
there is for what is known .
EQUIVOCAL - Using the same term with two different meanings in the same
argument or presentation; a word that admits of more than one meaning before its
meaning become univocal by a specific context or use. "Philosopher Smith is
equivocal here" means that he gives some argument which equivocates. It does not
mean that he's neutral or agnostic about the matter. Nor does it mean he can't make up
his mind. (These might be explanations of why he equivocates; but you shouldn't use
the phrase "He equivocates" to describe his neutrality or agnosticism or indecision.)
TRUTH AND VALIDITYIn philosophical discussions, only arguments can be valid.
Not points, objections, beliefs, or claims. Claims, beliefs, and statements are true or
false. Don't call a claim "valid." Don't call an inference or an argument "true ".
ESCHATOLOGY: The theological study of last things or end times. The theology of
the end of time as we know it, the end of humankind as we know it, or the end of the
world as we know it. Often takes the form of cultic doomsday predictions of direness,
though Christian eschatology is related to the themes of eternity, paradise,
resurrection, and the second coming of Jesus Christ. Several books of scripture,
among them the prophecy of Daniel and the New Testament book of Revelation, are
categorized as eschatological books. In literature, this form is more familiarly known
as apocalypic, although apocalypse almost always refers to some final destructive
force interpreted as divine judgment upon humankind .
ESSENCE - That which makes an object or being what it is in itself; the nature rather
than the existence of anything. The attribute or attributes that make a specific thing or
substance what it is and not something else; its nature; that without which it would not
be one and the same (type of) individual it is. For instance, I can cease sitting or being
shod and still be one and the same human being; but I can't cease being alive be the
same human being. Contrast: accident .
ETHICAL EGOISM: (GK: ego = I) The view that (a) each person aims to promote
his or her own well-being and interests, and ought to ;
ETHICAL RELATIVISM: The view that what is morally permissible, obligatory, and
forbidden differs among individuals or between cultures. According to ethical
relativism nothing is absolutely good or bad or right or wrong: rather, relativists hold,
what is right or wrong is so for a given individual or within a given culture or society:
the underlying idea is that the individual or society's judging things right or wrong or
good or evil makes them so for that individual or society. See cultural relativism,
subjectivism .
ETHICS - The branch of axiology concerned with moral values; the good, the right,
the noble. What one "should" or "ought" to do. The study of morality ( ethos means
customs, manners, morals). The practices and principles constituting morally right
conduct, and the philosophical study of these .
EUCHARIST: The formal Christian sacrament or service of celebrating through
remembrance and symbolic recreation the sacrifice of Jesus CHRIST for the sins of
humankind. In less liturgical churches, this is referred to as communion. In Eastern
Orthodox churches it is known as The Divine Liturgy. The Eucharist focusses on the
communal sharing of believers of bread and wine, symbols not only of The Last
Supper, but also of Christ's sacrificial dying for and redeeming humankind from sin .
EVANGELIST: A term from the New Testament referring to one who bears the good
news of salvation in Jesus Christ. The traditionally held writers of the Gospels -Saints Matthew, Mark, Luke and John -- are called the four evangelists. Modern
Christianity uses the term to refer to a category of clergy person or preacher whose
vocational mission is to win converts. More loosely, the term refers to anyone who
zealously promotes a program or a policy. By virtue of the appearance on television
of many Christian evangelists making appeals for conversion to Christ, the term
televangelist has come into being, refering to an evangelist who limits his methods
and approach to broadcasts via television .
EVIL: (1) the privation of goodness; (2) is non-being, or not a being, or nothing (the
absence of something, namely good .)
EX CATHEDRA: In Latin, the term refers to "out of the chair." This term is used to
proclaim the infallability of papal statements that are prounounced while the
archbishop is "ex cathedra" or exercising his official papal role. Technically speaking,
it is only when the Pope speaks from such a lofty place on lofty matters that Roman
Catholics believe him to be speaking infallibly .
EXCLUDED MIDDLE, LAW OF: Fundamental logical principle that maintains that
every proposition (or thought or statement) is either true or false, or that for every
statement, either it or its contradictory is true. Compare: Contradiction .
EXISTENCE - The state of being actual or real (but not necessarily material) as
opposed to possible or imaginary; that which has a definable place in reality. making
choices (being) [existentialism .]
EXISTENTIALISM - A philosophical movement or approach which originated in the
nineteenth century with such thinkers as Soren Kierkegaard (1813-55) and Friedrich
Nietzsche (1844-1900). Twentieth century existentialist thinkers include Martin
Heidegger, Karl Jaspers, and Jean-Paul Sartre. Because existentialism is so subjective
in its approach, with each thinker differing markedly in his philosophy, it is very
difficult to arrive at an objective definition of existentialism. Nevertheless, according
to most existentialists, ultimate reality cannot be defined objectively; rather, the
individual (i.e. the existent) comes to a personal inference of ultimate reality
according to his own unique experience in time and space. For the individual, there is
a self-awareness that he is an existent in a complex, ever-changing world; thus, a
condition of anxiety ( angst) arises as the individual struggles with his beliefs, hopes,
fears, and desires - ultimately, he senses an innate need to find a purpose for his
existence. There is also agreement among existentialist thinkers that free will is one of
the most important characteristics that an individual possesses. Thus, each human
being is presented with an innumerable amount of choices - and some choose to
conform to patterns imposed by some external authority rather than to carve out their
own destiny according to their own yearnings. Accordingly, then, the latter individual
is the one who becomes an authentic human being, while the individual who
compromises his deepest yearnings is the one who lives an inauthentic life. Opposed
to both rationalistic (a priori) and empirical (a posteriori) doctrines, and concludes
that the problem of being, not that of epistemology, must take precedence in
philosophical investigations. Being cannot be made a subjective or objective enquiry,
since being is revealed to the individual by reflection on his own unique concrete
existence in time and space. Existence is basic. It is the fact of an individual’s
presence and participation in a changing and potentially dangerous world. The self of
which he is aware is a thinking being, and he understands himself in terms of his
experience of himself and his situations .
EXODUS: The Greek term for the second book of the Bible, which contains the
stories of the Exodus and the giving of the Ten Commandments. The Hebrew term,
translated as "names," is sh'mot .
EXPERIENCE - In philosophy, usually equated with consciousness; it is used both of
perception and organized and interpreted data according to the categories of thought .
EXPERIMENT: A test or trial of a hypothesis - especially a test or trial involving
manipulations of variables in order to observe the results of these manipulations. See
confirmation, hypothetical deductive method. A trial or test of a scientific hypothesis
or generalization by manipulation of environmental factors to observe whether what
results agrees, or disagrees, with what the hypothesis predicts. See: hypothesis .
EXTENSIONAL: Having, or presupposing, a use of terms that is wholly determined
by what falls under them (in this actual world). The meaning of a term in the
extensional sense is given just by listing, or somehow indicating what things are
referred to by the term. The extensional meaning of “Evening Star,” “morning Star,”
and “Venus” is the same because they all refer to one and the same planet, though the
sense, or intension, might be different. Some philosphers (see nominalist) have hoped
that we could describe the world in wholly extensional terms. See intension .
FALLACY - An error in reasoning that makes it impossible to establish the
conclusion in question on the given premise; a logical mistake that makes deductive
arguments invalid. "Informal fallacies" generally describe a stated inference that
frequently (but not always) is not true. Example: Guilt by association - "He hangs out
with bad kids, therefore he must be a bad kid." Maybe so, but he might hang out with
them because he's an undercover vice cop, or a Christian youth worker, etc .
FALSEHOOD AND FALLACY A fallacy is an error in one's inferences or argument.
A falsehood is an error in the claims one makes. Claims, beliefs, and statements are
true or false. Only inferences and arguments can be fallacious .
FATALISM - The idea that what will happen is determined to happen, and nothing
that we do will make any difference. Thus, everything is determined by fate.
FERTILE CRESCENT, THE: A rich agricultural region in the Middle East bounded
by the Tigris and Euphrates rivers that is the seat of many ancient civilizations .
FETISHISM: Do not confuse with usage in clinical psychiatry and psychoanalysis. In
a religious context, this is the reverence and awe shown to an inanimate object, either
natural or manufactured, that is believed to have magical or spiritual powers. See
totem .
FIDEISM - This is a religious view which has existed throughout history, essentially
articulating the premise that certain doctrines cannot be arrived at through rational
thought processes. In sum, all metaphysical truth must be approached through " faith.
" An extreme fideistic position would be represented by Kierkegaard ( "leap of faith"),
while a more moderate position tempered by reason ( moderate fieism) would be
represented by Pascal .
FIRST CAUSE: (primary) is completely independent in its causality, it is not
dependent upon another for its existence .
FIVE CLASSICS: Basic doctrinal books of Confucianism. These books were studied
by the ancient Chinese and provided the official philosophy that led to statesmanship
and leadership. They are known by their Chinese names: Yi jing (I ching), Shu jing,
Shi jing, Chunqiu (Spring and Autumn Annals), Li ji, the I Ching being the most
widely known in the Western world. See The FOUR BOOKS and Mencius .
FIVE PILLARS: The core practices or doctrines of Islam. They include: shahadah,
salah, sawm, zakah and hajj(roughly translated respectively as: affirmation, prayer,
fasting, almsgiving, pilgrimage). See individual entries .
FLAGGELANTES: A sect of the Philippines that mixes Christian and primitive
doctrine and expresses itself in human self-crucifixion as an act of devotion especially
during the period of Lent and the celebration of Good Friday and Easter .
FLAGGELATION: A practice of self-beating or punishment aimed at subduing the
desires of the physical body. Often practiced by radical ascetics as an act of devotion .
FOR ITSELF (POUR-SOI): human is consciousness, fluid, lack of determinate
structure, potent. Alternatives to choice or things are distinguished by their not being
something else. [Sartre ]
FORM CRITICISM: A scholarly method of analyzing and categorizing ancient
manuscripts, especially those of the Hebrew and Christian scriptures; thus, a
fundamental method of so-called textual criticism of the Scriptures. The basic thesis
of form criticism is that certain writers prefer certain forms in telling their stories and
recording history. The scholar's task is to uncover and recognize these forms. See
pericope .
FORMAL FALSITY: occurs only when there is an error in judgment .
FORMAL: a direct correspondence with what is found in the effect (based on a priori
knowledge of causality .)
FORMS (IDEAS, IDEAL TYPES) - A doctrine central to the philosophy of Plato
(427-347 BC). In the Greek, the term is rendered ideai or eidoV (= ideas). This is
perhaps one of the most complex theories in philosophy, partly because, although
Plato continued to maintain this doctrine throughout his philosophical career, the
doctrine of Ideas or Ideal types ( Forms, Ideas, and Ideal types are all interchangeable
terms) was always in the process of philosophical development in the mind of Plato,
as evidenced by his writings. Many historians of philosophy have regretted the fact
that we have no adequate record of the lectures of Plato when he taught in his
Academy (i.e. the philosophical school which he founded in Athens). With the
additional insight provided by his lectures, we would have certainly grasped his
doctrine more definitively. Now in ordinary language, the English word Idea is
essentially a subjective concept which we assign to an individual's subjective mind.
However, in Plato's Doctrine of Ideas (or Ideal types), we are referring to objective
universal concepts which exist outside of the individual's mind. For instance, in
Plato's Timaeus he theorizes that the Demiurge (i.e., the creator of the material or
sensible world) made the individual things in the world according to an Ideal type or
pattern which exists in some transcendental plane. Socrates, for instance, would be an
imperfect copy of the demiurgic concept of the Ideal Man which exists in the
transcendental plane. A dog, for instance, is simply an imperfect copy of the
demiurgic concept of the Ideal dog which exists in the transcendental plane. The same
goes for birds, trees, lions, stones, etc., as well as such aesthetic and ethical ideas as
beauty, goodness, truth, love, etc. It is important to note that Plato's theory of
knowledge regarding Ideas is connected to his entire philosophical construct - for
instance, his doctrine of immortality, i.e. the preexistence of souls and
metempsychosis (or reincarnation, transmigration). According to Plato, then, in his
Crito and Phaedo, where he records the final dialogue of Socrates in an Athenian
prison, the Socratic teaching can be summarized as such :
Prior to one's existence on earth, he lives in the transcendental world where the Ideas (
Ideal types) also reside (if I can use that word). When a human being is born into his
earthly existence, he not only becomes an imperfect type of the Ideal man, but he
subconsciously brings with him a knowledge of the Ideas which exist within the
transcendental world. Thus, when he experiences material reality (e.g., birds, trees,
lions, dogs, stones, etc.), he doesn't " learn" what they are as if they exist "outside" his
mind; rather, he "remembers" what they are from his preexistence in the
transcendental realm as they are recalled from his subconscious. Thus, according to
Plato, knowledge of the sensible, material, ethical/aesthetic world already exists
within the person's mind. A person doesn't learn anything " new ;" he simply recalls
what he already knows from his prexistent life in the transcendental realm .
Thus, if we were to summarize Plato's Doctrine of Ideas, we would note two key
points: (1) The sensible, material, ethical/aesthetic world in which we live is an
imperfect copy of a perfect realm of Ideal types which exists in some transcendental
realm; and (2) Our knowledge of the sensible, material, ethical/aesthetic world
already exists within our subconscious or conscious (depending on the degree of our
philosophic knowledge). Thus, our knowledge of the world is innate; it's not
something we discover empirically or in any other way. (From the latter statement,
you can sense that Plato's Theory of Ideas would come under great scrutiny and
criticism, first from Aristotle (Plato's student), and then from a long line of
philosophers over a period of 2,000 years .)
Finally, allow me to point out that Plato's best depiction of his Theory of Ideas can be
found in his Republic: Book VII. The depiction is called "The Allegory of the Cave."
Although it is highly advised to read the primary text of "The Allegory of the Cave," I
will here quote the philosopher Bertrand Russell (1870-1972) as he summarizes
Plato's "Allegory of the Cave." "Those who are destitute of philosophy may be
compared to prisoners in a cave, who are only able to look in one direction because
they are bound, and who have a fire behind them and a wall in front. Between them
and the wall there is nothing; all that they see are shadows of themselves, and of
objects behind them, cast on the wall by the light of the fire. Inevitably they regard
these shadows as real, and have no notion of the objects to which they are due."
(Russell, A History of Philosophy, NY:Simon and Schuster, 1945 ). Thus, in Plato's "
Allegory of the Cave ," the men who are chained in the cave are analagous to us - i.e.
we who are chained to our present existence here on earth. When we look around and
perceive the sensible, material objects around us, we are simply looking at "shadows"
on the wall - i.e. imperfect representations of the Ideal types which are "behind us"
(i.e. beyond our view .)
FORMS (OR IDEAS): For Plato, the ideal Archetypes or patterns according to which
all things are constructed. These are grasped by rational insight - which Plato held to
be a kind of recollection - and not by sensory perception. The Forms, according to
Plato, are intelligible realities which transcend the material world of sensible objects
which somehow resemble or participate in them: they are ideals which material or
sensible thing imitate or aspire to. For Aristotle forms or essences are immanent they are the inner aspiration or or principle of development in the thing itself .
FOUR ELEMENTS - According to many of the Greek philosophers, beginning with
Empedocles (494-435 BC), the four essential elements that comprised the universe
were earth, air, fire, and water .
FOUR NOBLE TRUTHS: The doctrines or principles laid out by The Buddha. The
fundamental beliefs of Buddhism. They are: 1) Life is suffering; 2) Craving and
attachment are the cause of suffering; 3) Such selfish drives can be overcome; 4)
Overcoming craving and attachment is achieved through the eightfold path, which
comprises right understanding, right purpose, right speech, right conduct, right
livelihood, right effort, right alertness, and right concentration .
FREE WILL - in contrast with determinism, the doctrine of free will asserts that man
is able to make choices according to his own will. Although the debate between free
will and determinism has been ongoing for centuries, the fields of psychology,
philosophy, and theology have all introduced their respective theories into this
important debate. initiating uncaused action. Free choice, will, or volition. God gives
us the will to choose the good, but we have the ability to do otherwise. Thus, if we
choose evil, instead of good, we are responsible. Liberty of choice or selfdetermination. On the absolute or libertarian conception, free will is opposed
absolutely to causal determination: given a situation, a person could simply have
chosen and done otherwise than they did, unconditionally. Choices, on this
conception, are uncaused or self-caused causings. On the compatibilist or hypothetical
conception, free will is opposed to constraint; a person is free if they could have done
otherwise if they'd so chosen; though our choices, like everything else, are effects of
antecedent causes. On this conception free acts are not uncaused, they're just caused
in the right way, by our own preferences and desires. Acting freely on this "soft
determinist" view is doing what you want (because you want to). See also:
determinism .
FUNDAMENTALISM, FUNDAMENTALIST: In its most objective form,
fundamentalism refers to the doctrines and creeds put forth in a series of 20th-century
Christian writings called The Fundamentals that sought to counter the predominant
liberal trend of Enlightenment theology flourishing in nineteenth century European
and American culture. With a heavy emphasis on the infallibilty and inerrancy of the
Bible, fundamentalism came to stand for a reactionary rejection of liberal scholarship
and an anti-intellectual approach to matters of faith, though in fact several of its
proponents were among the intelligensia of their day. Thus, in the mid- and late
twentieth century, the term became somewhat pejorative. More recently, the term has
become associated with any religious reactionary or conservative expression, as in
Islamic fundamentalism. In the United States, fundamentalism has often been
associated with Anglo-Saxon, Protestant values.