Download Sociology Ch. 4 S. 4: Groups Within Society

Sociology Ch. 4 S. 4: Groups Within Society
Obj: Summarize the major features of __________ and ______________ groups;
Identify the _____________ that groups fulfill.
A ____________ is not only a group; it is a group made up of other smaller groups.
Every individual in society participates in groups. In fact, sociologists such as David
Orenstein consider "groups and group activities ... the very foundation upon which
social life is structured." A group can be very ____________-two people on a date,
for example. Or it can be very _____________-5OO soldiers at boot camp. A group
can be very intimate, as in the case of the family. It can also be very formal, as in the
case of people attending a conference.
What Is a Group?
In sociological terms, a group has four major features. First, it must consist of two or
more ____________. Second, there must be _____________ among members. If
you exchange greetings with a friend in the hall at school, for example, interaction
has taken place. Interaction occurs whenever the actions of one person cause
another person or persons to act. Third, the members of the group must have shared
expectations. Fourth, the members must possess some sense of common
______________.
The last three features-interaction, shared expectations, and a common identitydistinguish a group from an aggregate or a social category. When people gather in
the same place at the same time but lack organization or lasting patterns of
interaction, they form an ______________. Passengers on an airplane or people
standing in a ticket line at the movies are examples of aggregates. In the case of
social categories, it is not necessary for the people to interact in any way. A social
________________ is simply a means of classifying people according to a shared
trait or a common status. Students, women, teenagers, and left-handed people are
examples of social categories.
All groups are not the same. Obviously, they can differ in size. They also differ in the
length of time they remain ________________ and in their organizational structure.
Size
While some groups are very small, other groups are enormous. The
_________________ group possible, a group with two members, is called a
________________. In a dyad each member of the group has direct control over the
group's existence. If one member leaves the group, the group ends. Consequently,
decision making in a dyad can be difficult. If the two members fail to agree, one
member must ______________ the other to change his or her position or the group
may cease to exist.
According to sociologist Georg Simmel, a major change occurs in groups when group
size increases from two members to three members. With a _____________-person
group, called a _______________, the group takes on a life of its own, independent
of any individual member. No one person can disband the group. In addition,
decision making in a triad is often _______________ than in a dyad, since twoagainst-one alliances can form in cases of disagreement.
How large can a small group be? Sociologists consider a _____________ group one
with few enough members that everyone is able to interact on a face-to-face basis.
The more members, the greater the number of face-to-face relationships. For
example, in a group of just 10 members the possible number of face-to-face
relationships is 45. Sociologists have found that ________ is the largest number of
people that can work well in one group. When the group is larger than that, members
have a tendency to ____________ themselves into smaller groups.
Time
Some groups you may participate in meet ______________ and never meet again.
Other groups you are part of-such as your ____________—exist for many years.
Most groups fall somewhere in between these two extremes. However, regardless of
the type of group, interaction is not continuous. Few people spend 24 hours a day
with their families, for example. Instead family members meet as a group during
different periods of the __________, such as at breakfast or dinner.
Organization
The organization of groups can be either formal or informal. In a _______________
group, the structure, goals, and activities of the group are clearly defined. In an
_______________ group there is no official structure or established rules of
conduct. The student government in your school is a formal group. All meetings are
conducted according to specific _____________. The goals of the group are slated
in the constitution, and norms for all occasions are listed in the bylaws. Your circle of
friends would be an example of an informal group, because you likely do not have
rules or structure for meetings.
Types of Groups
We all are members of different ______________ of groups. The most ____________
types of groups recognized by sociologists include primary groups, secondary
groups, reference groups, in-groups, and out-groups. Since the development of the
______________, sociologists have noted the emergence of a new kind of group,
called e-communities.
Primary and Secondary Groups
One of the easiest ways to classify groups is according to the degree of
________________ that occurs among group members. Charles Horton Cooley
used the term primary group to describe those involving the most intimate
___________________. "By primary groups," Cooley said, "I mean those
characterized by intimate face-to-face association and _______________. They are
primary in several senses, but chiefly in that they are fundamental in forming the
social nature and ideals of the individual."
A ______________ group is a small group of people who interact over a relatively
long period of time on a direct and _____________ basis. In primary-group
relationships the entire self of the individual is taken into account. The relationships
are intimate and often face-to-face. Communication is deep and intense, and the
structure is ______________. Family relationships are probably the most common
primary relationships.
Against this, Cooley contrasted ________________ groups. A secondary group is a
group in which interaction is __________________ and temporary in nature.
Secondary-group relationships involve a reaction to only a part of the individuals self.
Secondary-group relationships also tend to be casual and limited in personal
involvement. The person's importance to the group lies in the function that he or she
performs in the group. An individual can be replaced easily by anyone who can carry
out the specific ___________ needed to achieve the group's goals. This
characteristic is particularly important because secondary groups are generally
organized around specific goals. Examples of secondary groups include a
classroom, a factory, and a political party.
Suppose you work at a cement _____________, loading cement into sacks. The
factory management has little interest in your personality. Whether you attend
religious services regularly and what you do with your leisure time is of little concern
to them. They are interested only in your ______________ to load cement into the
sacks. If you cannot handle the responsibilities of the job adequately, you will likely
be replaced by someone else who can.
It is also possible for primary and secondary relationships to exist in the same group.
Within most secondary groups to which you may belong, you might develop some
primary relationships. Look again at the example of the cement factory. Within that
secondary group you might form primary relationships with other ____________ on
the line. These relationships provide you with the regular interaction and friendship
lacking in the secondary group.
Reference Groups
People usually perform their social roles and judge their own behaviors according to
the standards set by a particular group. They do not have to belong to this group,
however. As long as people identify with the groups ________________ and
attitudes, the group influences their behavior. Any group with whom individuals
identify and whose attitudes and values they adopt is called a _______________
group.
Groups of friends or school clubs serve as reference groups for many students.
Members of a particular occupation often serve as reference groups for adults. As
children grow up or as adults adjust to changing social conditions, they often change
their reference groups. The choice of reference groups is particularly important
because groups can have both ______________ and negative effects on behavior.
In-Groups and Out-Groups
All groups have boundaries-methods of distinguishing between members and
nonmembers. When a group’s boundaries are clearly marked, group members tend
to think in terms of in-groups and out-groups. The group that a person belongs to
and identifies with is called an _____-group. Any groups that the person does not
belong to or identify with is called an _______-group. Both primary and secondary
groups can serve as in-groups and out-groups.
Most in-groups exhibit three characteristics. First, group members tend to
_______________ themselves from other groups through the use of symbols. For
example, groups often use badges, clothing, names, or slogans as forms of
identification. Second, members view themselves positively and they often view outgroups in negative terms. Finally, in-groups generally compete with out-groups, even
to the point of engaging in conflict.
E-communities
Some sociologists have suggested that computer technology-most notably the
Internet-has given rise to a new type of group. In an _______________________,
people interact with one another regularly on the Internet. Most of these communities
are based on Usenet, a system of Internet discussion groups called newsgroups. At
present, there are some 90,000 newsgroups covering an almost endless array of
subjects. Most newsgroups are little more than sites for members to discuss issues
of common _______________. However, some seem like primary groups. Members
exhibit behaviors similar to those of primary-group members in the "real world." They
argue, engage in intellectual discussions, exchange knowledge, share intimate
details of their lives, gossip, argue, play ____________, and even flirt. The only
difference is that they do it online rather than face-to-face.
Social Networks
We all belong to ___________ than one group and interact with more than one set of
people. Whether on the Internet or in the "real world." The web of relationships that
is formed by the sum total of a person's interactions with other people is termed a
social _______________. Social networks include both direct and indirect
relationships. We have direct relationships with those whom we interact with in our
primary and secondary group relationships. We have indirect relationships with
people we know or who know us but with whom we have little or no
________________, such as friends of a friend.
Unlike groups, social networks do not have clear _________________ and do not give
rise to a common sense of identity. Yet they do provide us with a feeling of
community and with opportunities for social interaction and career advancement. In
some instances, knowing the "___________" person can mean the difference
between getting or not getting a job. Social networks also provide a
______________ system that can help us through stressful periods.
Group Functions
In order to exist, all groups must fulfill several basic functions. Groups must define their
boundaries so that members can tell who belongs and who does not. To do this,
groups use an array of methods, including symbols, such as ______________ or
other styles of dress; gestures, such as hand signals or handshakes; and language.
Groups must also select _____________-people who influence the attitudes and
opinions of others. In some cases leadership roles are assigned. For example, the
board of directors of a large corporation selects the company's chief executive
officer. With other groups, individuals achieve leadership because of some ability,
such as soccer skills or expertise at chess. Still other groups use ______________
to choose leaders. Members of many professional associations cast ballots to select
their presidents.
Studies suggest that, regardless of how they are selected, leaders fall into two
categories. _________________ leaders are task-oriented. They find specific
means that will help the group reach its goals. _________________ leaders, on the
other hand, are emotion-oriented. They find ways to keep the group together and to
maintain _______________. Groups need both kinds of leadership to be successful.
An instrumental leader might develop a game plan for the football team to win a
championship. At the same time, an expressive leader might use fight songs and
chants to keep team spirits high in the days before the big game.
Groups also need to perform the related functions of setting goals, assigning tasks,
and making decisions. If groups have no purpose, then there is no reason for them
to _____________. Therefore, groups set _____________. The nature and scope of
these goals varies from group to group. The goals for an informal group may be as
simple as maintaining the group. Formal groups may have very large goals. For
example, the American Sociological Association has a very broad goal advancing
sociology as a science and profession. In contrast, the goal of a National Football
League team is fairly narrow in scope-to win the Super Bowl.
To achieve their goals, groups need to assign tasks to their ______________.
Knowing what is being done, and who is doing it, helps strengthen members' support
for the group. Setting goals and assigning tasks involves making decisions.
Whatever a group's decisions, the methods of making them must be acceptable to
members.
Finally, groups need to control their members‘ ______________. If members
constantly _______________ group norms, the group cannot long survive. The
group, therefore, needs to employ effective sanctions to ensure conformity to norms.
Primary groups generally allow a greater level of nonconformity than do secondary
groups. Interestingly, people tend to show a greater commitment to primary group
norms. This is because they place a high value on primary-group membership. In
turn, members tend to belong to primary groups longer than secondary groups.
_________________ is linked to the importance that people attach to a particular
group.