Download Sociology Ch. 4 S. 4: Groups Within Society

Sociology Ch. 4 S. 4: Groups
Within Society
Obj: Summarize the major
features of primary and secondary
groups; Identify the purposes that
groups fulfill.
A society is not only a group; it is a group made up
of other smaller groups. Every individual in
society participates in groups. In fact,
sociologists such as David Orenstein consider
"groups and group activities ... the very
foundation upon which social life is structured." A
group can be very small-two people on a date,
for example. Or it can be very large-5OO
soldiers at boot camp. A group can be very
intimate, as in the case of the family. It can also
be very formal, as in the case of people
attending a conference.
What Is a Group?
In sociological terms, a group has four major
features. First, it must consist of two or more
people. Second, there must be interaction
among members. If you exchange greetings with
a friend in the hall at school, for example,
interaction has taken place. Interaction occurs
whenever the actions of one person cause
another person or persons to act. Third, the
members of the group must have shared
expectations. Fourth, the members must
possess some sense of common identity.
The last three features-interaction, shared expectations, and
a common identity-distinguish a group from an aggregate
or a social category. When people gather in the same
place at the same time but lack organization or lasting
patterns of interaction, they form an aggregate.
Passengers on an airplane or people standing in a ticket
line at the movies are examples of aggregates. In the case
of social categories, it is not necessary for the people to
interact in any way. A social category is simply a means of
classifying people according to a shared trait or a common
status. Students, women, teenagers, and left-handed
people are examples of social categories.
All groups are not the same. Obviously, they can differ in size.
They also differ in the length of time they remain together
and in their organizational structure.
Size
While some groups are very
small, other groups are
enormous. The smallest
group possible, a group with
two members, is called a
dyad. In a dyad each
member of the group has
direct control over the
group's existence. If one
member leaves the group,
the group ends.
Consequently, decision
making in a dyad can be
difficult. If the two members
fail to agree, one member
must convince the other to
change his or her position or
the group may cease to
exist.
According to sociologist Georg Simmel, a major
change occurs in groups when group size
increases from two members to three members.
With a three-person group, called a triad, the
group takes on a life of its own, independent of
any individual member. No one person can
disband the group. In addition, decision making
in a triad is often easier than in a dyad, since
two-against-one alliances can form in cases of
disagreement.
How large can a small group be? Sociologists
consider a small group one with few enough
members that everyone is able to interact on a
face-to-face basis. The more members, the
greater the number of face-to-face relationships.
For example, in a group of just 10 members the
possible number of face-to-face relationships is
45. Sociologists have found that 15 is the largest
number of people that can work well in one
group. When the group is larger than that,
members have a tendency to sort themselves
into smaller groups.
Time
Some groups you may
participate in meet once
and never meet again.
Other groups you are part
of-such as your family—
exist for many years. Most
groups fall somewhere in
between these two
extremes. However,
regardless of the type of
group, interaction is not
continuous. Few people
spend 24 hours a day with
their families, for example.
Instead family members
meet as a group during
different periods of the day,
such as at breakfast or
dinner.
Organization
The organization of groups can be either formal or informal.
In a formal group, the structure, goals, and activities of
the group are clearly defined. In an informal group
there is no official structure or established rules of
conduct. The student government in your school is a
formal group. All meetings are conducted according to
specific rules. The goals of the group are slated in the
constitution, and norms for all occasions are listed in the
bylaws. Your circle of friends would be an example of an
informal group, because you likely do not have rules or
structure for meetings.
Types of Groups
We all are members of
different types of groups.
The most common types
of groups recognized by
sociologists include
primary groups, secondary
groups, reference groups,
in-groups, and out-groups.
Since the development of
the Internet, sociologists
have noted the emergence
of a new kind of group,
called e-communities.
Primary and Secondary Groups
One of the easiest ways to classify groups is
according to the degree of intimacy that occurs
among group members. Charles Horton Cooley
used the term primary group to describe those
involving the most intimate relationships. "By
primary groups," Cooley said, "I mean those
characterized by intimate face-to-face
association and cooperation. They are primary in
several senses, but chiefly in that they are
fundamental in forming the social nature and
ideals of the individual."
A primary group is a small group of people
who interact over a relatively long period
of time on a direct and personal basis. In
primary-group relationships the entire self
of the individual is taken into account. The
relationships are intimate and often faceto-face. Communication is deep and
intense, and the structure is informal.
Family relationships are probably the most
common primary relationships.
Against this, Cooley contrasted secondary groups.
A secondary group is a group in which
interaction is impersonal and temporary in
nature. Secondary-group relationships involve a
reaction to only a part of the individuals self.
Secondary-group relationships also tend to be
casual and limited in personal involvement. The
person's importance to the group lies in the
function that he or she performs in the group. An
individual can be replaced easily by anyone who
can carry out the specific tasks needed to
achieve the group's goals. This characteristic is
particularly important because secondary groups
are generally organized around specific goals.
Examples of secondary groups include a
classroom, a factory, and a political party.
Suppose you work at a cement factory, loading cement into
sacks. The factory management has little interest in your
personality. Whether you attend religious services
regularly and what you do with your leisure time is of little
concern to them. They are interested only in your ability to
load cement into the sacks. If you cannot handle the
responsibilities of the job adequately, you will likely be
replaced by someone else who can.
It is also possible for primary and secondary relationships to
exist in the same group. Within most secondary groups to
which you may belong, you might develop some primary
relationships. Look again at the example of the cement
factory. Within that secondary group you might form
primary relationships with other workers on the line.
These relationships provide you with the regular
interaction and friendship lacking in the secondary group.
Reference Groups
People usually perform their social roles and judge their own
behaviors according to the standards set by a particular
group. They do not have to belong to this group, however.
As long as people identify with the groups standards and
attitudes, the group influences their behavior. Any group
with whom individuals identify and whose attitudes and
values they adopt is called a reference group.
Groups of friends or school clubs serve as reference groups
for many students. Members of a particular occupation
often serve as reference groups for adults. As children
grow up or as adults adjust to changing social conditions,
they often change their reference groups. The choice of
reference groups is particularly important because groups
can have both positive and negative effects on behavior.
In-Groups and Out-Groups
All groups have boundaries-methods of distinguishing between
members and nonmembers. When a group’s boundaries are
clearly marked, group members tend to think in terms of ingroups and out-groups. The group that a person belongs to
and identifies with is called an in-group. Any groups that the
person does not belong to or identify with is called an outgroup. Both primary and secondary groups can serve as ingroups and out-groups.
Most in-groups exhibit three characteristics. First , group
members tend to separate themselves from other groups
through the use of symbols. For example, groups often use
badges, clothing, names, or slogans as forms of
identification. Second, members view themselves positively
and they often view out-groups in negative terms. Finally, ingroups generally compete with out-groups, even to the point
of engaging in conflict.
E-communities
Some sociologists have suggested that computer
technology-most notably the Internet-has given rise to a
new type of group. In an e-community, people interact
with one another regularly on the Internet. Most of these
communities are based on Usenet, a system of Internet
discussion groups called newsgroups. At present, there
are some 90,000 newsgroups covering an almost endless
array of subjects. Most newsgroups are little more than
sites for members to discuss issues of common interest.
However, some seem like primary groups. Members
exhibit behaviors similar to those of primary-group
members in the "real world." They argue, engage in
intellectual discussions, exchange knowledge, share
intimate details of their lives, gossip, argue, play games,
and even flirt. The only difference is that they do it online
rather than face-to-face.
Social Networks
We all belong to more than one group and interact
with more than one set of people. Whether on
the Internet or in the "real world." The web of
relationships that is formed by the sum total of a
person's interactions with other people is termed
a social network. Social networks include both
direct and indirect relationships. We have direct
relationships with those whom we interact with in
our primary and secondary group relationships.
We have indirect relationships with people we
know or who know us but with whom we have
little or no interaction, such as friends of a friend.
Unlike groups, social networks do not have
clear boundaries and do not give rise to a
common sense of identity. Yet they do
provide us with a feeling of community and
with opportunities for social interaction and
career advancement. In some instances,
knowing the "right" person can mean the
difference between getting or not getting a
job. Social networks also provide a
support system that can help us through
stressful periods.
Group Functions
In order to exist, all groups must fulfill several basic functions
Groups must define their boundaries so that members can
tell who belongs and who does not. To do this, groups use
an array of methods, including symbols, such as uniforms
or other styles of dress; gestures, such as hand signals or
handshakes; and language.
Groups must also select leaders-people who influence the
attitudes and opinions of others. In some cases leadership
roles are assigned. For example, the board of directors of
a large corporation selects the company's chief executive
officer. With other groups, individuals achieve leadership
because of some ability, such as soccer skills or expertise
at chess. Still other groups use elections to choose
leaders. Members of many professional associations cast
ballots to select their presidents.
Studies suggest that, regardless of how they are
selected, leaders fall into two categories.
Instrumental leaders are task-oriented. They
find specific means that will help the group reach
its goals. Expressive leaders, on the other
hand, are emotion-oriented. They find ways to
keep the group together and to maintain morale.
Groups need both kinds of leadership to be
successful. An instrumental leader might
develop a game plan for the football team to win
a championship. At the same time, an
expressive leader might use fight songs and
chants to keep team spirits high in the days
before the big game.
Groups also need to perform the related functions of setting
goals, assigning tasks, and making decisions. If groups
have no purpose, then there is no reason for them to
exist. Therefore, groups set goals. The nature and scope
of these goals varies from group to group. The goals for
an informal group may be as simple as maintaining the
group. Formal groups may have very large goals. For
example, the American Sociological Association has a
very broad goal advancing sociology as a science and
profession. In contrast, the goal of a National Football
League team is fairly narrow in scope-to win the Super
Bowl.
To achieve their goals, groups need to assign tasks to their
members. Knowing what is being done, and who is doing
it, helps strengthen members' support for the group.
Setting goals and assigning tasks involves making
decisions. Whatever a group's decisions, the methods of
making them must be acceptable to members.
Finally, groups need to control their members‘
behavior. If members constantly violate group
norms, the group cannot long survive. The
group, therefore, needs to employ effective
sanctions to ensure conformity to norms.
Primary groups generally allow a greater level of
nonconformity than do secondary groups.
Interestingly, people tend to show a greater
commitment to primary group norms. This is
because they place a high value on primarygroup membership. In turn, members tend to
belong to primary groups longer than secondary
groups. Conformity is linked to the importance
that people attach to a particular group.