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Decisive Turning Points in the Church’s Struggle to Survive
Lesson 5-The Peak and Decline of Papal Power
The Crusades

In 1071, the Turks (Muslims) conquered the Holy Land. The Eastern Empire/Church pleaded for aid from
the Western (Roman) Church.

In 1095, Pope Urban II preached the First Crusade (War of the Cross). A key element of this was offering a
plenary (full) indulgence (pardon) for all sins for those who fought.
o This is a natural development out of the doctrine of “The Treasury of Merits” which had been
developing since the 200s and the doctrine of Purgatory which had been solidified under Gregory
the Great. If penance gives satisfaction for sins, and if a pilgrimage is the ultimate penance, then a
pilgrimage at great risk of life and limb to fight for Christ is the absolute peak.
o BUT—as Crusading evolves, paying a substitute to Crusade becomes a means to indulgence, and
from there it is only a short, slippery slope to trading indulgences for cash.

The First Crusade was a success, and resulted in the establishment of “Crusader States” (western, feudal
kingdoms made up of Roman Catholics). Later crusades were all about protecting or trying to re-take those
states once they were threatened or re-conquered. None were complete successes. The Third Crusade (AKA
the “King’s Crusade”) is the one we probably know best, from the Robin Hood legends. Also during this
time, various orders of crusading knights (such as the Knights Templar) were founded.

Besides the obvious military results of the crusades, there is an immense spike in Papal prestige (as Popes
order kings into combat) that lessens and even turns into dishonor as later crusades fail. There is a renewal of
interest in Greek scholarship as western Europeans come into contact with Eastern scholarship preserved by
the Muslims—this will contribute both to Scholasticism and eventual better translations of scripture. And the
development of a taste for Eastern spices and silks will have a major impact on the development of both
capitalism and the “age of exploration” which will eventually lead to discovery of America.
The Apex of Papal Power

The learning brought back from the Crusades contributed to a “12th Century Renaissance” which included the
development of Universities, the “liberal arts,” and the rise of religious thinkers who tried to reconcile faith
and reason (especially the works of Plato and Aristotle). These “scholastics” included Anselm, Abelard, and
Thomas Aquinas.

By 1215, the Papacy reached its zenith under Pope Innocent III. Innocent claimed control over kingdoms and
empires, most notably forcing King John of England to become his vassal by using the threat of
excommunication and interdict. He preached the Fourth Crusade (which was a disaster, but the last time a
Pope controlled a major crusade) and also preached a crusade against the Albigensian heretics in France
(more on them later).

Innocent was also a key figure in the development of Canon Law. He called the Fourth Lateran Council
(1215), which established the system of Seven Sacraments and defined the doctrine of Transubstantiation,
which uses the works of Aristotle (as developed by the Scholastics) to explain how the bread and wine of
communion are literally transformed into the body and blood of Christ.
Overreach, Captivity, and Schism

Despite the apparent peak of Papal authority by the early 13 th century, there were cracks appearing. The
failure of crusades (as well as the bloodshed and obvious political maneuvering involved) diminished the
Popes’ ability to exert spiritual leadership. The now-huge papacy also had huge expenses, and financial
abuses were also terribly damaging. Also, the development of the machinery of modern nation-states limited
the ability of Popes to intimidate secular leaders.

In 1302, Pope Boniface VIII tried to assert authority over the kings of England and France, who had been
taxing church lands to pay for their Hundred Years’ War. The French King, Philip IV, fought back, and had
Boniface imprisoned. After he died, Philip dominated the election of his successor, Clement V, and forced
the papacy to move from Rome to Avignon. For the next 70 years, called the “Babylonian Captivity,” the
popes were puppets of the French crown (which further lessened the papal reputation among rival countries
like England and Germany).

It got worse in 1378, when a rival Pope was elected in Rome. Both Popes excommunicated the other, and
both sides claimed that all sacraments given by supporters of their rival were invalid. It got worse, still, when
in 1409 a Council was called to name a “real” Pope. But neither of the first two recognized the third one, so
the schism only worsened. Finally, the Council of Constance (1417) deposed all three and ended the schism,
but by this point there were numerous calls to reform the whole system, both from inside and outside the
church.