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PROGRAM PJJ
SEMESTER PERTAMA 2012/2013
LANGUAGE IN LITERATURE
BBL 3207
NAMA PENGAJAR:
DR. IDA BAIZURA BAHAR
EMEL: [email protected]
LANGUAGE IN LITERATURE (BBL 3207)
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Introduction
What is literature?
 Literature, as an art, is surely to arouse “the excitement
of emotion for the purpose of immediate pleasure,
through the medium of beauty” (Coleridge 365).
 In what way is language in the literature different from
language used in everyday communication?
For example:
“I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud”
I wandered lonely as a cloud
That floats on high o'er vales and hills,
When all at once I saw a crowd,
A host, of golden daffodils;
William Wordsworth
What is ‘literariness’
• Russian Formalists – “defamiliarisation”: deviating from
and distorting “practical language”.
• Mukarovsky – “the function of poetic language consists in
the maximum of foregrounding of the utterance”
– “foregrounding”  opposite of “automatisation”
(related to defamiliarisation i.e. to estrange
something is to foreground it)
– Stylistic devices to compel attention
– Tung (2007): “verbal artfulness” - proper choice and
good arrangement of all linguistic components
(phonological, morphological, syntactical, semantic,
and pragmatic).
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LANGUAGE IN LITERATURE (BBL 3207)
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Foregrounding
• the deautomatization of an act; the more an act is
automatized, the less it is consciously executed; the more
it is foregrounded, the more completely conscious does it
become.
• may occur due to deviational or parallelistic (syntagmatic
– repetition of the same element) nature of the poem.
Devices of Foregrounding
• Outside literature, language tends to be automatized; its
structures and meanings are used routinely.
• Within literature, however, this is opposed by devices
which thwart the automatism with which language is read,
processed, or understood.
• Generally, two such devices may be distinguished,
deviation and parallelism.
• Foregrounding is realized by linguistic deviation and
linguistic parallelism.
Foregrounding
Deviation
Parallelism
Figure 1 The Realization of Foregrounding (Leech)
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LANGUAGE IN LITERATURE (BBL 3207)
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Deviation
• A phenomenon when a set of rules or expectations are
broken in some way. Such as when this font has just
changed. This deviation from expectation produces the
effect of foregrounding, which attracts attention and aids
memorability.
• Result: some degree of surprise in the reader, and his / her
attention is thereby drawn to the form of the text itself
(rather than to its content).
Examples of Deviation
e. g: neologism - “monomyth”, “quark” (Joyce’s Finnegan’s
Wake)
live metaphor - “The fog comes
on little cat feet.
It sits looking
over harbor and city
on silent haunches
and then moves on.”
(Carl Sandburg’s the Fog)
ungrammatical sentences - he sang his didn't he
danced his did
(Cumming’s anyone lived in a pretty how town)
oxymoron - “Beautiful tyrant”
“Honourable villain”
(Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet)
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LANGUAGE IN LITERATURE (BBL 3207)
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• 8 types of deviation:
1. lexical deviation
2. grammatical deviation
3. phonological deviation
4. graphological deviation
5. semantic deviation
6. dialectal deviation
7. deviation of register
8. deviation of historical period.
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LANGUAGE IN LITERATURE (BBL 3207)
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Parallelism
A rhetorical device characterised by overregularity or repetitive
structures
e.g: rhyme, assonance, alliteration, meter, semantic symmetry,
or antistrophe.
Because I do not hope to turn again
Because I do not hope
Because I do not hope to turn....
T. S. Eliot's “Ash-Wednesday”
I looked upon the rotting sea,
And drew my eyes away;
I looked upon the rotting deck,
And there the dead men lay.
Coleridge’s “Rime of the Ancient Mariner”
Foregrounding
Deviation
Overregularity
Phonology Graphology lexicon Grammar Meaning
Realization
Form
Semantics
Language
Figure 2 The Realization of Foregrounding
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LANGUAGE IN LITERATURE (BBL 3207)
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Levels of Analysis
• If we want to examine language in a given text, there are
different aspects of language structure which need separate
consideration.
•
Levels of language
Areas of
Language Study
Phonology,
phonetics
Graphology
The sound of language; how
words are pronounced
The patterns and the shape of
written language
The way words are constructed Morphology
The way words combine with
Grammar
other words
The words used
Vocabulary
The meaning of words and
Semantics
sentences
The way words and sentences are Pragmatics
used in everyday situations
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LANGUAGE IN LITERATURE (BBL 3207)
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1. The sound level
•
•
•
•
•
•
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Phonemes
Rhyme
Rhythm
Alliteration
Assonance
Consonance
LANGUAGE IN LITERATURE (BBL 3207)
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Phonemes
A phoneme is the smallest phonetic unit in a language that is
capable of conveying a distinction in meaning. In other words,
phonemes are sounds that differentiate one word from another
(e.g. /hat/ vs. /hot/ or /mat/).
Rhyme
• the repetition of identical sound combination of words.
• usually placed at the end of the corresponding lines in
verse.
•
|Humpty |Dumpty |sat on a |wall
|Humpty |Dumpty |had a great |fall
|All the king’s |horses and |all the king’s |men
|Couldn’t put |Humpty to|gether a|gain
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LANGUAGE IN LITERATURE (BBL 3207)
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Types of rhyme
1.
2.
3.
4.
Full rhyme
Incomplete rhyme
Assonance
Consonance
Full rhyme
 Sometimes known as perfect, true or exact rhyme.
 The stressed vowels and all following consonants and
vowels are identical, but the consonants preceding the
rhyming vowels are different e.g. chain, drain; soul,
mole.
Incomplete rhyme
• Also known as half-rhymes, which are not exact
repetitions but are close enough to resonate e.g. supper,
blubber; sane, maintain; dangerous, hostages.
Assonance
• Repetition of vowel sounds to create internal rhyming
within phrases or sentences
• vowel rhymes, rhyme on the final vowel sound, but the
final consonance sound is different, e.g. flesh, fresh, press
(“e”); wine, life (“i”); head, said (“e”); tries, side (“i”);
• Hear the mellow wedding bells. (Poe)
• And murmuring of innumerable bees (Tennyson)
• The crumbling thunder of seas (Stevenson)
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LANGUAGE IN LITERATURE (BBL 3207)
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Consonance
• The repetition of two or more consonants using different
vowels within words.
• Consonant rhymes, rhyme on the final consonant sound
but the final vowel sound is different, e.g. blank, think
(“nk”); man, wind (“n”); wants, cards (“a”); aim, brim
(“m”); work, hurt (“r”); flung, long; tale, tool
– And the silken sad uncertain rustling of each purple
curtain (Poe)
– Rap rejects my tape deck, ejects projectile / Whether jew
or gentile I rank top percentile. (Hip-hop music)
Rhythm
• The regular periodic beat.
• “a unit which is usually larger than the syllable, and which
contains one stressed syllable, marking the recurrent beat,
and optionally, a number of unstressed syllables” (Leech,
1969: 105).
• Rhythm is related to the regularity of alternating patterns.
• It may involve a succession of weak and strong stress;
long and short; high and low and other contrasting
segments of utterance. Rhythm can occur in prose as well
as in verse.
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LANGUAGE IN LITERATURE (BBL 3207)
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Meter
• Meter is a type of rhythm of accented and unaccented
syllables organized into feet, aka patterns.
• It is determined by the character and number of syllables
in a line. Meter is also dependent on the way the syllables
are accented.
Shall I compare thee to a summer’s day?
(Shakespeare’s “Sonnet 18”)
• The above line consists of ten syllables that show a pattern
of unstressed and stressed syllables: 1st syllable
unstressed, 2nd syllable stressed, 3rd syllable
unstressed…. 10th syllable. The unstressed syllable is
underlined while the stressed syllable is in bold (Cumming
2006).
Foot – stress patterning
• A foot is made up of a pair of unstressed and stressed
syllables. Thus, the above line altogether contains five feet
(see below):
1
2
3
4
5
Shall I..|.. compare |.. thee to..|.. a sum..|.. mer’s day?
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LANGUAGE IN LITERATURE (BBL 3207)
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5 types of foot
Iamb
(Iambic)
Unstressed +
Stressed
Trochee Stressed +
(Trochaic) Unstressed
Spondee Stressed +
(Spondaic) Stressed
Unstressed +
Anapest
Unstressed +
(Anapestic)
Stressed
Stressed +
Dactyl
Unstressed +
(Dactylic
Unstressed
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"To be or not to
Two
be"
Syllables (Shakespeare’s
Hamlet)
"Doule, doule,
toil and
Two
trouble."
Syllables
(Shakespeare’s
Macbeth)
Two
“heartbreak”
Syllables
"I arise and
unbuild it
Three
again"
Syllables
(Shelley's
Cloud)
openly
Three
Syllables
LANGUAGE IN LITERATURE (BBL 3207)
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Meter depends on the type of foot and the number of feet in a
line. Below are the types of meter and the line length:
Monometer
Dimeter
Trimeter
Tetrameter
Pentameter
Hexameter
Heptameter
Octameter
One Foot
Two Feet
Three Feet
Four Feet
Five Feet
Six Feet
Seven Feet
Eight Feet
1
2
3
4
Shall I..|.. compare |.. thee to..|.. a sum..|.. mer’s day?
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Alliteration
• The repetition of two or more consonants using different
vowels within words.
• Consonant rhymes, rhyme on the final consonant sound
but the final vowel sound is different, e.g. blank, think
(“nk”); man, wind (“n”); wants, cards (“a”); aim, brim
(“m”); work, hurt (“r”); flung, long; tale, tool
– And the silken sad uncertain rustling of each
purple curtain (Poe)
– Rap rejects my tape deck, ejects projectile /
Whether jew or gentile I rank top percentile.
(Hip-hop music)
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LANGUAGE IN LITERATURE (BBL 3207)
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Onomatopoeia
• a word that imitates the sound it represents
• Example:
splash, wow, gush, kerplunk
• Examples: Over the cobbles he clattered and clashed in
the dark inn-yard, / He tapped with his whip on the
shutters, but all was locked and barred; Tlot tlot, tlot tlot!
Had they heard it? The horse-hooves, ringing clear; / Tlot
tlot, tlot tlot, in the distance! Were they deaf that they did
not hear?
("The Highwayman" by Alfred Noyes)
2. The Graphological Level
• Design, layout, spelling and lettering
• The typographical arrangement of words is as important in
conveying the intended effect
she loves me
she loves me not
she loves
she loves me
she
she loves
she
- Emmet Williams
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LANGUAGE IN LITERATURE (BBL 3207)
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3. The Grammatical Level
• Grammar itself is also composed of a number of levels.
Sentences:
composed of one or more clauses
(or "simple sentences").
Clauses:
composed of one or more phrases.
Phrases:
composed of one or more words.
Words
Words
• Word class:
–
–
–
–
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noun (N),
verb (V),
adjective (A)
adverb (Adv).
LANGUAGE IN LITERATURE (BBL 3207)
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• Sentence structure:
– Single – a sentence with only one verb group
– Compound – sentences / clauses linked simply (and,
but)
– Complex – sentences where subordinate clauses are
bound together by more complex connectives and
punctuation
• Consider the sentence,
• 'The audience might like the play but I hate it'.
• Using round brackets to indicate the phrases and square
brackets to indicate the clauses, we can show the
sentence's structure as follows:
• [ ( The audience) ( might like ) ( the play ) ] [ but ( I ) (
hate ) ( it ) ]
• The sentence thus consists of two coordinated clauses (ie
two simple sentences joined together as one sentence). In
the first clause each constituent phrase consists of two
words, and in the second clause each phrase consists of
one word.
• Identifying elements of simple sentences  functions of
words and phrases in sentences: subject, predicate, object,
complement, adverbial
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LANGUAGE IN LITERATURE (BBL 3207)
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Predicators
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consist of verb phrases (e.g. 'ate', 'had
been eating', 'is', 'was being') which can
be used to express tense and aspect)
function as the centre of English
sentences and clauses, around which
everything else revolves they express
actions (e.g. 'hit'), processes (e.g.
'changed', 'decided') and linking
relations (e.g. 'is', 'seemed') they are the
most obligatory of English sentence
constituents Note that we use the term
'predicator' to be able to distinguish the
form-property (VP: verb/verb phrase)
from its function in the sentence so that
this difference can parallel those for the
other SPOCA elements (see below)
Examples Mary loves John (transitive
predicator), John had been running
(intransitive predicator), John seems
quiet (linking predicator)
LANGUAGE IN LITERATURE (BBL 3207)
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Subjects consist of noun phrases (NPs) (e.g. 'a student',
'John')
function as the topic of the sentence, and the
'doer' of any action expressed by a dynamic
predicator and normally come before that
predicator subjects are the next most
obligatory element after predicators
Examples Mary loves John, The exhausted
student had been running, John seems quiet
Objects consist of noun phrases (NPs)
function as the 'receiver' of any action
expressed by a dynamic predicator, where
relevant and normally come immediately
after that predicator
objects are obligatory with transitive
predicators (but do not occur with intransitive
or linking predicators)
Examples Mary loves John, The exhausted
student had eaten all his food, Mary has the
biggest ice cream
Complements consist of noun phrases (e.g. 'a student') or
adjective phrases (e.g. 'very happy') and
normally come immediately after a linking
predicator (when they are subject
complements) or an object (if they are object
complements) Complements are obligatory
with linking predicators
function as
the specification of some attribute or role of
the subject (usually) or the object
(sometimes) of the sentence
Examples John is a student, The exhausted
student is ill, Mary made her mother very
angry
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LANGUAGE IN LITERATURE (BBL 3207)
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Adverbials
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consist of adverb phrases (AdvPs: e.g. 'soon',
'then' 'very quickly', prepositional phrases
(PPs: e.g. 'up the road', 'in a minute' or noun
phrases (e.g. 'last Tuesday', 'the day before
last')
function as
the specification of a condition related to the
predicator (e.g. when, where or how the
predicator process occurred)
adverbs are the most optional of the SPOCA
elements and can normally occur in more
positions than the other SPOCA elements,
though the most normal position for most
adverbials is at the ends of clauses
Examples Then John walked up the road,
The exhausted student became ill last
Thursday, Next Mary stupidly made her
mother very angry on her wedding
anniversary
LANGUAGE IN LITERATURE (BBL 3207)
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Words and Tropes: Transference of
Meaning
Figures of speech: a literary device involving unusual use of
language, often to associate or compare distinct things.
Types of figures of speech:
 Scheme: (Greek schēma, form, shape) involves a
deviation from the ordinary pattern or arrangement of
words
 Trope: (Greek tropein, to turn) involves a deviation from
the ordinary and principal signification or meaning of a
word. Metaphor, metonymy, personification, simile, and
synecdoche are sometimes referred to as the principal
tropes.
Both types of figures involve transference:
 Trope—transference of meaning
 Scheme—transference of order
The Tropes
 Allusion. An indirect reference to a person, event, statement,
or theme found in literature, the other arts, history, myths,
religion, or popular culture.
Example: Neil Diamond’s song “One More Bite of the
Apple” contains an illusion to the story of Genesis.
 Anthimeria (an-thi-mer’-i-a) Substitution of one part of
speech for another (such as a noun used as a verb).
Examples: I've been Republicaned all I care to be this
election year.
Noun used as verb.
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LANGUAGE IN LITERATURE (BBL 3207)
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Did you see the way those blockers defenced on that last
play?
Noun used as verb.
Feel bad? Strike up some music and have a good sing.
Verb used as noun.
 Apostrophe. Addressing an absent person or a personified
abstraction.
Example: Death, be not proud.
 Metaphor. An implied comparison between two things of
unlike nature that yet have something in common.
Example: On the final examination, several students went
down in flames.
 Metonymy. Substitution of some attribute or suggestive
word for what is actually meant.
Example: Capital has learned to sit down and talk with
Labor.
 Onomatopoeia. Use of words whose sound echoes the sense.
Example: My days have crackled and gone up in smoke.
 Oxymoron. The yoking of two terms that are ordinarily
contradictory.
Examples: jumbo shrimp, sweet pain
 Paradox. An apparently contradictory statement that
nevertheless contains a measure of truth.
Example: Art is a form of lying to tell the truth. (Pablo
Picasso)
 Personification. Investing abstractions or inanimate objects
with human qualities or abilities.
Example: He glanced at the dew-covered grass, and it
winked back at him.
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LANGUAGE IN LITERATURE (BBL 3207)
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 Pun. Generic term for those figures which make a play on
words.
Example: If we don’t hang together, we’ll hang
separately. (Benjamin Franklin)
 Simile. An explicit comparison between two things of unlike
nature that yet have something in common. The comparison
usually contains either “like” or “as.”
Example: Like an arrow, the prosecutor went directly to
the point.
 Synecdoche (si-nek´-də-kē). A figure of speech in which a
part stands for the whole.
Example: Bread for food.
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More on Foregrounding, Deviation and Parallelism
Foregrounding:
 some parts of texts had more effect on readers than others in
terms of interpretation, because the textual parts were
linguistically deviant or specially patterned in some way, thus
making them psychologically salient (or 'foregrounded') for
readers (Short 1996).
Deviation:
 exploits choice and frustrates expectations that are set up
either by the linguistic system or by changing the pattern set
up within the poem at some expected point (Herman 1998).
There are two types of ‘deviation’. The first is ‘external
deviation’ which involves distorting some external norm,
such as the rules of grammar or expectations deriving from
conventions of poetic form. The second is ‘internal deviation’
which relates to changes in the pattern initially set up within
the poem itself.
Parallelism:
 defined as where some features are held constant, usually
structural features, while others, usually lexical items - for
example, words or idioms - are varied (Short 1996).
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LANGUAGE IN LITERATURE (BBL 3207)
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Sound Parallelism
• how sound patterns contribute to the meaning and effects
of poems: alliteration, assonance and rhyme,
• and also how particular sounds and groups of sounds
‘mimic’ phenomena in the world to create effects like
onomatopoeia
What are alliteration and assonance?
Same or similar single sounds?
Alliteration is usually described as the repetition of the same
consonants, and assonance as the repetition of the same vowels.
 some identical sound repetitions do not count as alliteration
or assonance and
 sometimes ‘repetitions’ which are similar but not identical do
count sometimes. Interestingly, students do not have much
trouble in accepting that rhymes do not always have to be
exact (cf. terms like ‘half-rhyme’, ‘partial-rhyme’, ‘semirhyme’ and ‘para-rhyme’), and this should prepare us that
alliteration and assonance do not always have to be exact
either.
Rhyme
 canonical rhymes come at the ends of lines of poetry, and
patterns of these rhymes are usually called rhyme schemes
(e.g. couplet schemes (AABB etc.), alternate line rhyme
schemes (ABAB etc.), and so on.
 usually involve the last syllable of the words which
rhyme.
 so canonical rhyme is defined partly in terms of phonemic
parallelism in the final syllable of the rhyming words and
partly in terms of position in the poetic line.
 Example:
Speechless, speechless, that's how you make me feel
Though I'm with you I am far away and nothing is for real
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Sound symbolism
 words that sound like what they mean.
 the most obvious examples of this are onomatopoeic
words like ‘hiss’ or ‘shush’, where the sound structure
of the nouns mimic the sound they represent in the
world outside language.
 some sounds can symbolize size, length and so on.
 onomatopoeia is one kind of sound symbolism.
 Example:
And sometimes like a gleaner thou dost keep
Steady thy laden head across a brook;
Or by a cider press, with patient look,
Thou watchest the last oozings hours by hours.
(John Keats, 'To Autumn')
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References
Ronald Carter. (ed.). (1983) Language and Literature. London:
Allen & Unwin.
Carter, Ronald. (1993). “Between languages: grammar and lexis
in Thomas Hardy’s “The Oxen””. In Peter Verdonk. (ed.).
(1993). Twentieth-century Poetry: From Text To Context.
London: Routledge, chapter 5, pp. 57-67.
Herman, Vimala. (1998). Dramatic Discourse. Dialogue as
Interaction in Place.London: Routledge.
Leech, Geoffrey N. (1969). A Linguistic Guide to English
Poetry. London: Longman, chapters 1 and 2.
Short, Mick (1993) “To analyse a poem stylistically: “To Paint a
Water Lily” by Ted Hughes”. In Peter Verdonk. (ed.).
(1993). Twentieth-century Poetry: From Text To Context,
London: Routledge, chapter 1, pp. 5-20.
Short, Mick. (1996). Exploring the Language of Poems, Plays
and Prose. London: Longman, chapter 1, pp. 1-35.
Simpson, Paul. (1997). Language Through Literature. London:
Routledge, chapter 2, pp. 23-59.
Verdonk, Peter (1993) “Poetry and public life: a contextualised
reading of Seamus Heaney’s “Punishment””. In Peter
Verdonk. (ed.). (1993). Twentieth-century Poetry: From
Text To Context. London: Routledge, chapter 9, pp. 11233.
Widdowson, Henry. (1983). “The Conditional Presence of Mr
Bleaney”. In Ronald Carter. (ed.). Language and
Literature. London: Allen & Unwin, chapter 1, pp. 18-26.
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