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Matching Advertising Appeals to Culture: The Influence of Products' Use Conditions
Author(s): Yong Zhang and Betsy D. Gelb
Source: Journal of Advertising, Vol. 25, No. 3 (Autumn, 1996), pp. 29-46
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Matching Advertising Appeals to Culture: The
Influence of Products' Use Conditions
Yong Zhang and Betsy D. Gelb
In an empirical study, the authors investigated the effects of different advertising appeals used in the United
States and China. The study focused on the match between values expressed in advertising and values in each
of the two cultures, and included the influence of product use condition (socially visible use vs. use in a private
setting). Results indicate that although culturally congruent appeals were more effective in general, product
use condition moderated the effectiveness of culturally incongruent advertising appeals. Specifically, the
subjects' reactions to the appeal were more positive when the appeal matched the product use condition than
when the appeal did not match either the culture or the product use condition. Managerial implications are
discussed.
Yong Zhang (Ph.D., University of
Houston) is Assistant Professor of
Marketing and International
Business, Department of Marketing
and International Business, Frank G.
Zarb School of Business, Hofstra
University.
Betsy D. Gelb (Ph.D., University of
Houston) is Professor of Marketing,
Department of Marketing, College of
Business Administration, University
of Houston.
The authors express their sincere
thanks to Mr. Ning Zhang of the
Industrial and Commercial Bank of
China, and Dr. Bo-Xue Zhang of
Beijing Medical University for their
assistance in part of the data
collection.
Understanding cultural differences is often considered a prerequisite for
successful international advertising (Keegan 1989). The reasoning is that
consumers grow up in a particular culture and become accustomed to that
culture's value systems, beliefs, and perception processes. Consequently,
they respond to advertising messages that are congruent with their culture,
rewarding advertisers who understand that culture and tailor ads to reflect
its values (Boddewyn, Soehl, and Picard 1986; Buzzell 1968; Harris 1984;
Hornik 1980).
Is such tailoring worth the incremental cost? That question has elicited
several decades of heated discussions about the wisdom of standardization
or adaptation (see Elinder 1961; Fatt 1967; Donnelly 1970; Levitt 1983;
Onkvisit and Shaw 1987). International advertisers have become particularly interested in what circumstances require culturally congruent advertising (i.e., advertising that conforms to the norms of a particular culture)
versus a more uniform global approach (Jain 1989). Although a standardized approach in advertising has been acknowledged to be more suitable for
industrial and high technology products than for consumer products (Bakker
1977; Boddewyn, Soehl, and Picard 1986), relatively little is known about
differences between various consumer products and, in particular, how the
way a product is used might affect the best advertising approach.
We investigated product use conditions and their impact on the effectiveness of different advertising appeals across contrasting cultures. Specifically, we explored the effectiveness of advertising appeals matched to culture in the United States and China for an advertised product used in a
private setting versus one used in a socially visible setting. The United
States and China were chosen to provide maximum cultural contrast.
Advertising in China
Journal of Advertising,
Volume XXV, Number 3
Fall 1996
For decades after 1949, advertising in China seemed to be an oxymoron.
Particularly during the so-called "Cultural Revolution" from 1966 to 1975,
advertising was labeled as evil, deceptive, and reflective of capitalistic decadence. No advertising was allowed or needed, because the Chinese economy
was managed through Soviet-style "five-year plans."
However, remarkable changes have taken place since 1978 when the
30
30
~
~
~
___
"open-door policy" was adopted. China has evolved
from an egalitarian orthodox Marxist state to a more
pragmatic "socialist market economy" oriented toward
economic development and modernization. Increasingly, like their Western counterparts, Chinese managers now face productivity and marketing concerns
as China continues to move away from a centrally
planned economy. Meanwhile, China has come a long
way from having no advertising at all to having a
contemporary advertising infrastructure with all modern media in use (Tse, Belk, and Zhou 1989). For
example, in terms of print media, about 8,000 different periodicals are currently published in China, many
of which carry a variety of consumer advertisements
(Lou 1995). As per capita income has risen, advertising spending has skyrocketed. From 1985 to 1992
advertising expenditure's proportion of gross domestic product more than tripled from 0.07% to 0.23%
(Karp 1994). As a result, advertising has become one
of China's fastest-growing industries (Tefft 1994). With
the current annual advertising spending growth rate,
China is expected to become one of the world's top 10
advertising markets within a few years (Parton 1994).
Many U.S. and Japanese advertising agencies, therefore, have entered the Chinese market either to serve
their present clients that have expanded to China or
to pursue new opportunities with local firms.
Despite its rapid growth, the Chinese advertising
industry has yet to reach the levels of sophistication
found in most Western countries. For example, the
relative 'newness" of the advertising industry means
great difficulties in assessing advertising effectiveness in China (Lohtia, Johnston, and Aab 1994). Television audience measures and newspaper and magazine readership data are almost nonexistent. Therefore, it is difficult for advertisers to assess consumer
media habits, which may be very different from those
in other parts of the world. Many advertisements are
informational and unsophisticated in style. In addition, although a wide variety of media options are
available, both consumer and industrial products (such
as large trucks, construction machinery, etc.) are advertised through mass media, indicating either a lack
of sophistication in media planning or simply a lack
of specific media to target certain groups.
As mass advertising becomes a reality for many
American companies operating in China, understanding cultural differences between the United States
and China and the impact of such differences on the
effectiveness of advertising appeals will be increasingly important to those companies. However, little
empirical research has examined the cultural differ-
The Jora
Journal of
of Aderis
Advertising
The_
ences between the two countries. Samiee and Jeong
(1994) reviewed cross-cultural advertising studies
published in 18 major periodicals between 1980 and
1992 and found that only one study pertained to China
and none compared China with the United States.
Our study was undertaken in part to address this
deficiency.
Theoretical
Cultural
Appeals
Background
Values and Advertising
Hofstede (1980, p.19) has defined culture as "the
interactive aggregate of common characteristics that
influences a group's response to its environment,"
and has referred to culture as the "collective programming of the mind which distinguishes the members of one group or category of people from those of
another" (1991, p. 5). According to some researchers,
fundamental cultural differences can be identified by
examining the culturally generalizable aspects of values (e.g., Munson and McIntyre 1979). Advertisers
heed such differences because values are of central
concern in understanding consumer behavior (Carman
1978; Rosenberg 1956; Vinson, Scott, and Lamont
1977).
Although culture is a complex, multifaceted construct, one of its most basic dimensions is the value
placed on individualism versus collectivism, an aspect of culture employed in many studies (see Kim et
al. 1994). The core meaning of individualism is giving
priority to personal goals over the goals of the ingroup; that of collectivism is the reverse (Triandis
1989a, 1989b). For example, in individualistic cultures such as those in some European countries and
North America, individuals prefer independent relationships to each other and individual goals take precedence over group goals. In contrast, people in Asia,
Africa, and Latin America have an interdependent
relationship with one another within a collectivity
and group goals take precedence over individual goals.
The individualism-collectivism dichotomy essentially
reflects basic value emphases at the cultural level the priorities or preferences, present in cultures or
expressed by individuals, for particular goals rather
than for others (Kluckhohn 1951; Rokeach 1973;
Schwartz 1990).
Researchers have argued that the difference in the
dimension represents a
individualism-collectivism
and American culChinese
between
distinction
prime
tures (e.g., Chan 1986; Ho 1979). In fact, China is
Fall 1996
Fall
1996
typically considered to exemplify a collectivistic culture. Chinese society has historically emphasized family, social interests, and collective actions, and
deemphasized personal goals and accomplishments
(Li 1978; Oh 1976). Contrary to the American individualistic lifestyle and resentment of conformity, the
Chinese way of life has traditionally stressed interdependence and conformity. Despite the recent emergence of some consumer enclaves that have embraced
such values as conspicuous consumption, conformity
still tends to govern interpersonal relationships in
Chinese society, and continues to have social and
cultural approval (Hsu 1981).
The United States, in contrast, is known for its
"rugged individualism," the belief that each person is
an entity separate from others and the group and, as
such, is endowed with natural rights (Spence 1985).
American individualism means not only that one is
self-sufficient as a matter of fact, but also that one
must strive toward self-sufficiency as an ideal: each
individual controls his or her own destiny without
help from others (Hsu 1983). Thus, individualism is
considered central to the American character (Spence
1985), and American values that encourage individual
achievement and the attainment of material prosperity are rooted in that concept. It is also evidenced in
theories of ego and moral development postulating
that the highest stage a person can attain is one of
autonomy, which is above acceptance of and conformity to society's standards (e.g., Loevinger 1976).
Such cultural values, norms, and characteristics
are embedded in advertising appeals, the specific approaches advertisers use to communicate how their
products will satisfy customer needs (Arens and Bovee
1994). The appeals are typically carried in the illustration and headlines of the ad and are supported
and reinforced by the ad copy. Researchers have argued that cultural values are the core of advertising
messages and typical advertisements endorse, glamorize, and inevitably reinforce cultural values (Pollay
and Gallagher 1990). Evidence indicates that different cultures seem to emphasize different advertising
appeals. For example, Japanese ads have been found
to contain more emotional and fewer comparative
appeals than American ads (Hong, Muderrisoglu, and
Zinkhan 1987). Ads in China have been found to contain more utilitarian appeals that focus on state of
being and promise a better life (Tse, Belk, and Zhou
1989).
Of course, neither the United States nor China is a
culturally homogeneous society. Multiculturalism in
the United States is well documented, and China has
31
31~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
56 nationalities, many with their own distinctive cultural values and belief systems. However, the largest
nationality, the Han, constitutes more than 90% of
the total population, most of whom share Confucian
values and virtues that emphasize family and collectivity. Although disparity in economic development
across the different regions of China may have resulted in a multicultural environment even within
the Han nationality, ample evidence shows that culture has great inertia and cultural change is slow
(Triandis et al. 1988). In societies with long traditions, emphasis on collectivism changes very slowly,
as evidenced by the traditional Chinese cultures found
today in Taiwan and Hong Kong despite their economic divergence from China.
To the extent that advertising does reflect cultural
differences and there are clear differences between
Chinese and American cultures, one would predict
greatest success in each culture for culturally congruent appeals, that is, appeals that conform to prevailing cultural values and norms (such as those illustrating group benefits in China or those illustrating
individual benefits in the United States). Similarly,
the effectiveness of a particular appeal should differ
between cultures that do not share the same values
and norms.
The preceding considerations suggested two hypotheses.
Hla: In the United States, a culturally congruent individualistic appeal elicits more
positive responses than a culturally incongruent collectivistic appeal.
Hlb: In China, a culturally congruent collectivistic appeal elicits more positive responses than a culturally incongruent individualistic appeal.
Products' Use Condition as a
Moderator
In certain situations, advertising appeal and culture may not match for several reasons. An advertiser may follow a global, standardized approach, and
the advertising appeals employed may not reflect the
prevailing cultural values of a particular country. For
example, an individualistic appeal may be used in a
collectivistic culture vice versa. Moreover, an individual in the audience for an ad may not be a part of
the prevailing culture for which the ad was designed
for. Some researchers hold that for the individualism-collectivism dimension of culture, the difference
between two cultures' orientation is a matter of de-
32
32~~~~~~~~~~~~~~__
gree rather than bipolar and dichotomous (e.g.,
Schwartz 1990). Also, although the terms "individualism" and "collectivism" are used to characterize cultures and societies, not everyone within a particular
culture conforms to the cultural norms (Triandis et
al. 1985); there are idiocentric individuals in collectivistic cultures and allocentric individuals in individualistic cultures (Triandis 1989). Beyond these
psychological tendencies, there are also many ingroups in individualistic cultures (e.g., family, coworkers, clubs, etc.) and much of the behavior of individuals belonging to such groups is consistent with the
groups' norms, although the relationship between the
individuals and the group is less stable than that in a
collectivistic culture (Triandis 1989). Similarly, individualistic values may be present within collectivistic
cultures.
The preceding discussion offers an explanation for
a seeming contradiction: an appeal that does not match
a culture may not necessarily produce inferior results
at all times. Advertising effectiveness may be moderated by other factors such as product characteristics.
For example, in the United States certain products
(such as feeling versus thinking products according
to the FCB Grid) are particularly suited for certain
advertising appeals such as humor (Weinberger and
Campbell 1990/1991). In their study of the effectiveness of different advertising appeals, Johar and Sirgy
(1991) pointed out that the effectiveness of valueexpressive as opposed to utilitarian appeals is a function of such product-related factors as product differentiation, life cycle, scarcity, and conspicuousness and
of such consumer-related factors as involvement, prior
knowledge, and self-monitoring. Hence, the effectiveness of a culturally incongruent advertising appeal
may be moderated by a variety of factors.
That view is consistent with theories on the objectbased function of attitude. According to Shavitt (1990),
the purpose an object serves may substantially influence the functions of attitudes toward the object. Some
objects (such as a toothbrush) mainly serve a personal purpose because they are used mostly in private and do not have social meaning (i.e., the social
projection of self through the display of the object).
Other objects, such as a car or camera, often serve a
social purpose of self-projection and status communication although they can also serve a personal purpose such as providing transportation or taking pictures.
Closely related to the purpose of an object is its
meaning to the consumer. Researchers have argued
that consumers own objects for the value they proand Rochberg-Halton
vide (e.g., Csikszentmihalyi
Advertud
of Advertising
The Journa
Journal of
1981; Furby 1978; Richins 1994). Such a value of
possession is rooted in the objects' meanings to the
consumer, according to Richins (1994), which may be
either public (i.e., meanings assigned to an object by
members of society at large) or private (i.e., personal
and subjective meanings of an object held by an individual). In a similar vein, other researchers have demonstrated that consumption visibility significantly
influences consumers' expectations of social approval
(e.g., Fisher and Price 1992).
Hence, we expect that a consumer's need to conform to cultural values and norms when evaluating
products may depend on how the products are used
(the product use condition). A toothbrush need not
reflect the prevailing collectivist societal value the
way a camera would in a collectivistic culture, given
that the latter is used in public and serves a social
purpose and the former does not. An appeal that emphasizes individual benefits (individualistic appeal)
therefore may be effective in promoting the toothbrush in a predominantly collectivistic culture. In a
parallel way, a socially visible product such as a camera need not reflect a society's level of individualism
to the extent that would be expected for a product for
private use. An appeal that highlights the social benefits of the product (collectivistic appeal) may work
well for such a product in a predominantly individualistic culture.
Further, we expect this influence of product use
condition to be more evident for a culturally incongruent advertising appeal than for a culturally congruent appeal. Stated differently, moderation by product use condition when a culturally congruent advertising appeal is used would be less obvious because of
the predominance of the culturally congruent appeal,
as argued previously. However, when a culturally
incongruent appeal is used, product use condition
would become more salient. Hence, when a culturally
incongruent advertising appeal matches the product's
use condition, the ad would be more effective than
one in which a culturally incongruent advertising appeal matches neither the culture nor the product's
use condition.
The preceding considerations suggested the following hypotheses.
H2: Product use condition moderates the effectiveness of culturally-incongruent advertising appeals.
H2a: In the United States, a culturally incongruent collectivistic appeal elicits more
positive responses for a socially visible
product than for a product used in private.
Fall 1996
1996
Fall
33
Table 1
Sample Profile
Sample
Characteristics UnitedStates
China
Gender
Male
Female
47.4%
52.6%
58.7%
41.3%
Mean
SD
23.7
4.6
21.5
3.2
Age
Race/Nationalities
Caucasian
Black
Hispanic
Asian
65.8%
11.3%
7.5%
16.2%
Han
Hui
Others
91.3%
3.8%
5.0%
Employed
36.3%
23.0%
Full-timeStudents
54.0%
78.0%
H2b: In China, a culturally incongruent individualistic appeal elicits more positive
responses for a product used in private
than for a socially visible product.
Method
Design of the Experiment
An experiment was designed to test the hypotheses. Subjects were 160 students, 80 in each country;
93 were men and 67 were women. They were enrolled
in undergraduate and graduate business classes in a
large university in southern China and a large university in the northeastern United States (see Table
1 for sample profiles). Both are comprehensive universities in major metropolitan areas with diverse
cultural and economic activities.
Three independent variables were used in the experiment: 1) country (the United States and China),
2) advertising appeals (collectivistic versus individu-
alistic), and 3) product use conditions (socially visible
versus privately used). The first two were betweensubjects variables. Students in each country were selected randomly to receive an individualistic or collectivist appeal in each of the test ads they saw. For
the third variable, product use condition, a withinsubject design was devised to provide control of extraneous influences and thus increase the power of
the test. The within-subject design also afforded
greater efficiency in the use of subjects, an issue of
particular concern given the high cost of conducting
cross-cultural studies. Hence, the study had a 2 X 2 X
2 factorial design.
Products. A 35mm camera was selected as the socially visible product. It was given a fictional brand
name to remove influences due to prior brand evaluation and knowledge. A camera was selected because
of university students' general familiarity with the
product class in both countries; in a pretest conducted
in both countries prior to the study, all students owned
or operated some type of camera. Many types of cameras are widely advertised in consumer magazines in
China. Foreign cameras accounted for 57% of the total camera sales in 1995 (Yan 1995a). With the rapid
improvement in standard of living, cameras and other
consumer electronic products have been in high demand (Yan 1995b). Domestic camera sales in 1995
exceeded 8 million units, and surveys indicate that
more than 85% of all households in major cities own
cameras (Rao 1995). The sales growth rates in large
and mid-sized cities for the next few years are estimated to be about 12 to 15% annually (Rao 1995). In
selecting the type of camera for the ad, we took into
account the obvious disparity in purchasing power
between the two countries; a simple point-and-shoot
type was featured because it was in common use in
both countries. The print ads for the camera, which
differed only in appeal employed, were constructed to
imitate actual ads in photography magazines (see
Figure 1) and were in color.
The other product chosen was a toothbrush, on the
basis that it is used most often in private. It was used
widely by and equally familiar to the subjects in both
countries. Undoubtedly, the levels of dental care differ considerably between the two countries. However,
data obtained from China's National Committee for
Oral Health and the Department of Prevention and
Dental Hygiene, Beijing Medical University, indicate
that toothbrush use rate is high among urban dwellers (80%) (Zhang 1995). In certain population groups
(such as students), the use rate is close to 100% (Niu,
Niu, and Chen 1995). Given the widespread use of
34
The Journal of Adverti8ing
Advertising
Figure 1
Experimental Stimuli: A Socially Visible Product with Collectivistic
Appeal
PENTA®
LIFEIS FUN, YOU'VEGOTTHEPICTURESTO PROVEIT.
I
,4...
Share the Moments of Joy and Happiness
With Your Friends and Family!
.
............
1994
.
.
l
R. ENEWOO,
1994
PENTA
.....CORPORATION. 1 ENT.RPRIS.
PENTA CORPORATION, 101 ENTERPRISE MR..t3W,
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Fall 1996
1996
Fall
dental products and the huge potential, American
companies such as Procter & Gamble, ColgatePalmolive, and Oral-B Laboratories have become
major players in the Chinese oral care product market (Zhang 1995b). The toothbrush ad, again with
variation only in the appeal employed, was developed
to resemble real ads in consumer magazines (see Figure 2 for a Chinese version of the ad).
The ad copy, size, and layout for both products were
made identical to control for potential confounds. Only
the picture of the product and the fictional brand
name were varied to correspond to the product. Examination of the magazine ads used in the two countries revealed that the layout and artwork were fairly
similar, although generally the print quality of the
U.S. ads was better than that of the Chinese ads.
Advertising Appeals. As in previous research, the
two advertising appeals were manipulated by varying the headline copy of the ads. The headline copy
was solicited from pretest subjects in a focus-group
setting (sample size = 13). The moderator opened the
focus-group session by welcoming the subjects to the
session, then discussed culture's influence on advertising in general and why people are interested in
such influences. Some of the major cultural differences in the individualism-collectivism
dimension
were subsequently identified and discussed. After the
initial warm-up discussions, the subjects were instructed to list verbal themes that would reflect either collectivistic appeals or individualistic appeals.
The four dimensions of individualisVmcollectivism
identified by Triandis et al. (1986) were used as a
guide in generating the advertising slogans. The appeals emerging from the discussions that most closely
conformed to the dimensions were subjected to further discussion and chosen as the exemplar appeals.
The appeals were unanimously considered by the initial focus group subjects to be either collectivistic or
individualistic. After several iterative rounds of pretesting with separate groups (total sample size = 34)
in which both American-born and Chinese-born college students evaluated and discussed the appeal
types, the final individualistic appeal copy read, "Come
and indulge in the joy of self-expression" for the camera ad and "Reach out for the pleasure of brushing"
for the toothbrush ad. Both headlines illustrated self
direction and hedonism, values closely associated with
individualistic cultures (Schwartz 1990; Triandis et
al. 1986). The final collectivistic appeal copy read,
"Share the moments of happiness with your friends
and family" for the camera ad and "Everybody likes
the brand name Flexbrush" for the toothbrush ad.
35
Both headlines reflected family/in-group orientation
and social conformity, value orientations predominant in collectivistic cultures (Triandis et al. 1986).
The back-translation technique was used in translating the copy (Brislin 1980; Douglas and Craig 1983).
Specifically, the copy was first translated into Chinese by a native Chinese who knew both languages
and then back-translated into English by two other
bilingual persons to ensure the accuracy of the translation. The translated copy was further examined and
modified by one of the principal investigators who is
proficient in both languages. A pragmatic translation
(Casagrande 1954) approach was followed in the translation of the brand names and other elements of the
ads, whereas an aesthetic-poetic/ethnographic translation approach was followed in the translation of the
headline copy. The translated copy was further pretested with both Chinese and U.S. college students to
ensure the effectiveness of the perceived appeal type
(Brislin 1980, p. 431). The pretest subjects (total
sample size = 24) were recruited to participate in an
advertising study. They were given copies of the ads
and were asked to indicate whether they understood
the material and whether the copy had either individualistic appeal or collectivistic appeal. They all
indicated that they understood the material and correctly identified the ad copy. Table 2 contains the
translated headline copy.
Filler ads from both Chinese and U. S. magazines
chosen by a panel of judges were used to disguise the
purpose of the study. The advertisements were compiled into a magazine-like booklet and appeared in
the following sequence: filler ad 1, experimental ad 1
(socially visible product with individualistic appeal
privately used product with collectivistic appeal), filler
ad 2, experimental ad 2 (privately used product with
individualistic appeaVsocially visible product with
collectivistic appeal), and filler ad 3. The order of the
products was alternated in the experimental ads to
eliminate any sequence effect due to the order of presentation.
Procedure
and Dependent
Variables
Subjects were recruited to participate in a study
ostensibly investigating how people read printed materials. The students completed the task in groups of
five to 10. They were instructed to be as natural as
possible in reading the materials presented to them.
After the subjects finished reading the experimental
materials, they completed a questionnaire containing
several scales on which they indicated their responses
36
The Journal of Advertising
Advertising
Figure 2
Experimental Stimuli: A Privately Used Product with Individualistic Appeal
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37
Table 2
Translation of Ad Copy Headlines
Product
Individualistic Appeal
Collectivistic Appeal
Camera
"Come and Indulge in the Joy
of Self Expression!"
"Share the Moments of Joy and
Happiness with Your Friends
and Family!"
Toothbrush
"Reach Out for the Pleasure
of Brushing!"
"Everybody Likes the Brand Name
Flexbrush!"
to the ads and the products. All the dependent measures were adapted from previous studies.
Attitude toward the Ad. Ad attitude (Aad) was measured with a 4-item, 9-point semantic differential scale
(unpleasant-pleasant, unlikable-likable, not irritatwith
ing-irritating, and not interesting-interesting,
the third item reverse-scaled). Semantic differential
scales have been characterized as "pancultural" scales
suitable for measuring similar traits in cross-cultural
studies (Osgood, May, and Miron 1975). Such scales
have been demonstrated to capture concepts and dimensions used to evaluate stimuli-either
objects or
to
account
for
major
subjects-and
proportions of the
variation in responses. An average of the multiple
ratings served as the measure of Aad. Because the
study had one within-subject factor, each subject responded separately to the two product types.
Attitude toward the Brand. Brand attitude (Abr)
was measured with a 3-item scale (bad-good, not nicenice, and unlikable-likable). Again, the mean score of
the ratings was used as the dependent measure of the
construct. All semantic differential scales used for
both Aad and Abr had a range from -4 to 4 with zero
being the central point.
Product Choice. To measure choice behavior, subjects were given a choice of three different brands in
each product category. They were informed that they
would receive for their participation in the study two
coupons good toward the purchase of one brand in
each product category. They were asked to place an
"X" next to the brand name of the chosen products
listed on the questionnaire. Subjects' choices were
coded as 1 if the advertised brand was chosen and 0
otherwise (see Table 3).
Several ancillary measures also were taken to check
for potential biases in responses. Demographic data
were requested and product familiarity was measured
with a scale ranging from -4 to 4 to detect differences
in subjects' familiarity with each product across the
two countries. A question to assess demand characteristics asked the subjects what they felt was the
true purpose of the study. The questionnaire was
translated into Chinese with a procedure similar to
that used in ad copy translation.
Because the objective of our study was to investigate the main effect of different appeals and the interactive effect of moderation by product use condition, we used analysis of variance to test the proposed
hypotheses. Choice data were analyzed with logistic
regression.
Results
To reduce potential problems due to different response styles (Chun, Campbell, and Yoo 1974) of subjects in the two countries, all scaled responses were
standardized before they were subjected to analyses.
Such a standardization procedure removes location
and scale attributes from the data, thereby helping to
reduce possible distortion due to potential extreme
responses style differences. The standardized variables had a mean of zero and a standard deviation of
one. Table 4 contains the cell means of the variables.
As a preliminary step, we assessed measurement
reliability by calculating coefficient alpha for the scaled
measures. It was quite high (averaged Aad scores
across product type: .92; averaged Abr measures: .88).
We found no statistically significant difference in the
product familiarity measure between subjects in the
two countries for either product (Fs < 1). No subject
38
The
The Journal
Journal of
of Adverti8ing~~~~~~~
Advertising
38
-
Table 3
Measures
Dependent Variables
Ad attitude
(semantic differential)
Brand attitude
(semantic differential)
Choice behavior
(binary responses)
Unpleasant- Pleasant
Unlikable - Likable
Not irritating- Irritating(reverse scaled)
Not interesting - Interesting
Bad - Good
Not nice - Nice
Unlikable - Likable
Choice of advertised brand
Choice of other brands
1
0
Ancillary Measures
Demographics
Age
Gender, etc.
Product familiarity
Unfamiliar- Familiar
Experimental demand
The purpose of the study
guessed the true purpose of the experiment, and responses did not differ by gender.
Prior to testing the specific hypotheses, we conducted a full-factor omnibus repeated-measures
MANOVA with Aad measures on the two products as
the dependent variables and country and appeal type
as the independent variables. As noted previously,
country and appeal type were between-subjects factors and product was a within-subject factor; significant interactions would suggest the presence of a
potential moderation effect. The results revealed a
significant between-subjects country by appeal interaction (see Table 5 for a summary of the results) and
a product by appeal two-way interaction. Also significant was the product by country interaction. No other
effects were significant. These interactions suggested
that possible moderation was occurring, as had been
predicted.
Similarly, we conducted a full-factor procedure with
Abr as the dependent variable. Results revealed a
significant country by appeal interaction and significant product by appeal interaction. No other effects
were significant. We further analyzed these results
to test each specific hypothesis.
Tests of Hla and Hi b
The significant country by appeal interaction in the
overall analysis provided initial evidence that the
appeals differed in effectiveness between the two cultures. To test Hla and Hlb, further analyses were
conducted on the between-subjects factor appeal type
Fall 1996
39
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oS
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)
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)
o)
°U.
o
U
~=~~~~3~~ ~~(individualistic
a)
aD
cm
to
i-
LO
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ed -
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·
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-
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Q)
o
-
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Tjects
'a'
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52<
6
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toothbrush
culturally
E
°
'
incongruent
collectivistic
appeal
(F = 17.13,
d.f. = 1/39, p < .001), with a mean Aad of -.46 for the
(privately
used product) versus .06 for the
camera (socially visible product). As expected, however, no significant Aad
ad difference between the two
products is found for U.S. subjects exposed to the
<)
a)
turally
*'
S*
LO
a)
a>) ^
<
show the op-
significant product by appeal interaction found
the initial multivariate analysis provided prelimievidence supporting H2, that product use condition moderates the effectiveness
of advertising
appeals. Further analyses were conducted with data
from respondents in each country; ANOVAs were carried out within each appeal type subsequently to test
for the moderating effect of product use condition in
each country. These analyses were conducted separately for Aad and Abr scores.
Ad Attitude. The analyses of data from U.S. subshow a significant product by appeal interaction
(F = 9.16, d.f. = 1/78, p < .01) and an appeal main
effect (F = 8.52, p < .01). As a follow up, a repeatedmeasures ANOVA was conducted within each appeal
type. A product main effect is significant for the cul-
o
o,,
2
subjects
Test of H2, H2a, and H2b
.*|The
___^
o
from Chinese
t
,
i
O
c.
-O
CD)
,:,
Results
posite pattern (F = 19.21, p < .001) with a significantly higher score for the collectivistic appeal. The
mean scores are .30 (collectivistic appeal) versus -.32
appeal). The country by appeal interaction with Aad in the initial and followup analyses
is illustrated in Figure 3, panel A.
Results on Abr scores also show a significant appeal effect (F = 7.53, p < .01) among U.S. subjects.
The averaged scores across product for the U.S. subjects are -.21 (collectivistic appeal) versus .26 (individualistic appeal). Scores for the Chinese subjects
show a different pattern (see Figure 3, panel B), with
a significantly higher score (F = 14.48, p < .001) associated with the collectivistic appeal (.24) rather than
the individualistic appeal (-.22). These results clearly
support Hla and Hlb, that a culturally congruent
appeal is associated with more favorable attitudes.
'.-
*°
-
appeal).
N
o
co
with averaged Aad scores across product as the dependent variable within the country factor.
The results show a significant appeal main effect (F
= 8.52, p < .01) among U.S. subjects. U.S. subjects
an individualistic appeal; the averaged
scores across product for the U. S. respondents are
(collectivistic appeal) versus .23 (individualistic
co
congruent
individualistic
appeal (see Fig-
ure 2, panel A), and both values are higher than those
associated with the collectivistic appeal.
40
The Journal of
of Advertising
Adverti8ing~~~~~~~~~~~
40
Table 5
Results of Initial Analyses of Data
Measure
Sources
Ad attitude
Country (C)
Appeal (A)
Product (P)
CXA
CXP
AXP
CXAXP
1
1
1/156
1
1/156
1/156
1/156
0.06
0.96
0.02
26.54
4.39
30.94
1.77
0.80
0.32
0.98
0.001
0.03
0.001
0.18
Brand
attitude
Country (C)
Appeal (A)
Product (P)
CXA
CXP
AXP
CXAXP
1
1
1/156
1
1/156
1/156
1/156
0.26
0.11
0.00
20.66
3.31
25.01
0.04
0.60
0.73
0.98
0.001
0.07
0.001
0.84
d.f.
Therefore, the results support H2a. The moderation was salient with the culturally incongruent collectivistic appeal. When appeal matched product, the
Aad score (.06) was higher than that observed for the
double-mismatch case (-.46): a collectivistic appeal
inappropriate for both a privately used toothbrush
and the individualistic U.S. culture. The score in the
double-mismatch case lowered the overall score of
the collectivistic appeal, contributing to the appeal
main effect.
Analysis of the Chinese responses also show a significant product by appeal effect (F = 23.22, d.f. = 1/
78, p < .001) and a significant appeal main effect (F =
19.28, p < .001). As expected, for the culturally congruent collectivistic appeal, the product effect is not
significant. However, for the culturally incongruent
individualistic appeal, the product effect is significant (means .05 versus -.70, F = 22.62, d.f. = 1/39, p <
.001). The lower score elicited by the double mismatch of individualistic appeal with the socially visible product and collectivist culture (-.70) contributed
to the low score of the overall individualistic appeal
in the main effect. Figure 4, panel B is a plot of the
means.
Brand Attitude. The results on Abr are consistent
with those on Aad. For the U.S. subjects, the results
show a significant product by appeal interaction (F =
13.16, d.f. = 1/78, p < .001) and appeal main effect (F
= 7.53, p < .01). Analyses within appeal type show
F-Value
p-Value
that collectivistic appeal had a significant product
effect (p < .01, means: -.43 for privately used product
vs. .03 for socially visible product), whereas the individualistic appeal did not. The combination of collectivistic appeal with privately used product substantially lowered the scores, contributing to the appeal
type main effect (see Figure 4, panel C) and again
supporting the hypothesis that a culturally incongruent appeal to collectivism is least effective when (a)
the appeal does not match the culture and (b) the
appeal also does not match the product (a product not
used for social purposes).
Results among the Chinese subjects are in the expected direction, indicating a product by appeal interaction (F = 11.85, d.f. = 1/78, p < .001) and a main
appeal effect (F = 14.48, p < .001). Follow-up analyses
within appeal types show that the collectivistic appeal had an nonsignificant product effect, whereas
the individualistic appeal had a significant product
effect (F = 9.05, d.f. = 1/39, p < .01, mean -.08 for
toothbrush vs. -.52 for camera). The main effect appears to be caused mainly by the lower score for the
camera ad with an individualistic appeal (-.52), as
hypothesized.
Product
Choice
In analyzing the choice data with logistic regression procedures, we used brand choice as the crite-
Fall
1996
Fall 1996
41
Figure3
Test of Hla and Hlb: Countryby AppealInteraction
Ad
Attitude
Brand
Attitude
Individualistic
.5
.5
Individualistic
0
Individualistic
f
1)
*ob
.30
.23
.24
0
-.20
-.21 i
-.32
-.22
Collectivistic
-.5
-.5
United
States
China
(A)
rion variable and country, appeal type, product, and
the interactions between them as the predictor variables. The logistic regression results failed to show
the country by appeal interaction predicted by Hla
and Hlb (Wald x2 = .03), but did provide some support for the hypotheses about product and appeal
interaction (X2= 3.20, p < .05).
To investigate the product by appeal interaction,
we fitted two logistic models within each level of the
product factor. For the toothbrush data, the model
reveals a significant appeal main effect (X2= 7.03, p <
.01, see Table 6). Examination of the cell frequencies
indicates that choice probability for the advertised
product was higher with the individualistic appeal
than with the collectivistic appeal for both American
subjects (probability .65 vs. .37) and Chinese subjects
(probability .60 vs. .30). For U.S. respondents, individualistic appeals would be expected to be most effective. For Chinese respondents, individualistic appeals would be expected to trail collectivistic appeals
in effectiveness. However, the results show that individualistic appeals worked better for the privately
used product in both countries, thus supporting the
notion that product use condition may influence advertising effectiveness.
United
States
China
(B)
For the data on the camera, the model show a significant country by appeal interaction (X2 = 4.97, p <
.05; see Table 6). We examined cell frequencies to
understand the nature of the interaction. Chinese
subjects were more likely to choose the advertised
camera with a collectivistic appeal (choice probability
.63) than to choose the same product with an individualistic appeal (choice probability .30), as would
be expected. However, U. S. subjects did not exhibit
the same pattern of choice behavior; the proportions
choosing the advertised camera were almost identical, regardless of advertising appeal (.43 vs. .45). Figure 5 shows results for this socially visible product.
In sum, the product choice data do not exhibit a
strong pattern as in the case of Aad and Abr with
respect to the interaction effect between country and
advertising appeals. However, the results show an
appeal main effect favoring the individualistic appeal
for the privately used product in both countries. This
finding is consistent with our reasoning that product
use condition does have some effect beyond cultural
influence. The results for the socially visible camera
show that U. S. subjects were indifferent between the
two appeals. Therefore, the choice data provide only
limited support for the hypotheses.
42
42
The Journal
Journal of
Advertising
of Adverti8ing
Figure 4
Test of H2: Product by Appeal Interaction
Ad
Attitude
Ad
Attitude
.5
.5
.31
.13
.50
Socially Visible
Privately Used
0
.06
0
.46
-.5
Privately Used
-.5
Indiv.
(A)
United
.05
Socially Visible
-.70
Collect.
States
Brand
Attitude
.10
Indiv.
Collect.
(B) China
Brand
Attitude
.5
.5
.31
.15
Socially Visible
Privately Used
.34
.14
.03
0
0
.08
-.5
-.52 /
-.43
Privately Used
-.5
Indiv.
(C)
United
Collect.
States
Discussion
Findings
and Implications
Our finding that disproportionately favorable outcomes were associated with a match between advertising appeal and cultural values supports the idea
that cultural congruence brings about more favorable
attitudes. Therefore, matching advertising appeals to
culture is advisable for advertisers, especially in the
case of sharply contrasting cultures, such as those of
Socially
Visible
Indiv.
Collect.
(D) China
the United States and China. Rapid economic changes
taking place in China have created a huge market
with numerous opportunities for U.S. businesses
(Barnathan, Engardio, and Einhorn 1993). Our results suggest that an advertiser who takes such a
market seriously will seek to align message with culture.
We also addressed the role of product use condition
in situations where appeal and culture do not match.
Our results indicate that when the appeal matches
the product use condition, employing a culturally in--
Fall
1996
Fall 1996
43
Table 6
Results of Logistic Regression Analyses
ParameterEstimates
Variable
d.f.
Intercept
Country(C)
Appeal (A)
Product(P)
CXA
CXP
AXP
CXAXP
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
FullMode
.84
-.34
-1.25'
-.55
.12
-.47
1.152.06
Toothbrush
Camera
.85
-.34
-1.25'
.30
-.81
-.10
.12
1.46^
* p<.01.
*p < .05.
congruent advertising appeal may not be a problem.
This finding may have important implications for
firms that strive to standardize their global advertising appeals.
Essentially, standardization of advertising is based
on the premise that needs and wants of people are
basically the same everywhere and that a carefully
conceived and executed appeal can strike common
responsive chords in consumers in different countries
(Peebles 1978). Researchers have long noted product
characteristics and argued that standardization is
more feasible for industrial products than for consumer products (Boddewyn, Soehl, and Picard 1986),
and that among consumer products, durable products may afford greater opportunity for standardization than nondurable products because the latter require more adjustment to unique local tastes, habits,
and customs (Douglas and Urban 1977; Hovell and
Walters 1972).
Our findings add to these perspectives by providing
empirical evidence that product use condition is a key
element in determining the feasibility of standardizing advertising appeals. As we demonstrated, advertising standardization is feasible if a product is used
in a consumption situation that matches the appeal
in the ad. Culture matters, but advertisers need not
assume that its influence on responses to advertising
appeals is independent of other factors.
On the basis of our findings, what advice might be
offered specifically to firms marketing products in
China? The results suggest that Chinese consumers
respond more favorably to a collectivistic than to an
individualistic appeal. Yet, in adapting to the Chinese culture, a firm may also consider factors that
may provide bases for cost-effective standardized approaches in advertising. Product use situation can be
one such factor. It is particularly meaningful in view
of the vast size of the Chinese market and the potential costs of having to adapt to various regional markets. A standardized approach may afford several
important advantages, such as economy of scale and
more uniform product images. When product use conditions match a planned appeal, a standardized approach is certainly possible. Note, however, that given
the nature of the products used in our study, the
results are probably more reflective of the needs of
the urban than of rural consumers in China. Despite
rapid improvements in the standard of living, different areas may have greatly different consumer product needs.
The willingness of Chinese subjects to select the
toothbrush with an individualistic appeal is interesting. The anonymity of toothbrush usage enable them
to act on a desire to break from the collectivism that
pervades their public lives. Possibly appeals counter
to the cultural norm will attract buyers-if the product is used in private and the culturally incongruent
appeal at least matches the product, as in the case of
an individualistic appeal for a toothbrush.
The choice data are less than consistent with other
measures. One problem may be the coupon-use measure; although often used to capture behavioral intention, coupon interest is at least open to question as
an operationalization of purchase measure. In any
44
of Aderi8
Th Jora
The
Journal of
Advertising
44_
Figure 5
Choice Probabilities for The Socially
Visible Product
Probability
0.7
0.63
0.6
Collectivistic
0.5
0.45
0.4
0.43
Individualistic
0.3
0.30
United
States
China
case, the fact that the hypotheses are better supported by attitudinal data than by choice data reflects the commonly acknowledged gap between attitudes and behavior. If attitudes toward ad and brand
were entirely predictive of brand choice, there would
researchers
be no need for separate measures-but
have no such illusions.
Limitations and Future Research
As is true of laboratory studies, our research has
limitations. First, as a cross-cultural study, it may
have had biases due to extreme response style differences between respondents in the two cultures. Such
potential biases suggest caution in interpreting the
results. Second, no manipulation check was undertaken with the actual subjects of the experiment, and
such verification would increase confidence in the
results. Third, methodologically, because the appeals
used in the study reflect different dimensions of individualism and collectivism, ideally the appeals should
be crossed with both types of products. The practical
difficulty of finding appeals that apply simultaneously
to both products without losing realism, as well as
the resultant sample size inflation, prevented us from
doing so. Future studies should have a fuller design
to test the influence of culture. Fourth, as only two
products were used in the study, caution is warranted
in generalization to other products. Also, we relied on
direct observation and available use rate information
in choosing the products for the study. Given the
concerns about the quality of data emanating from
developing and historically planned economies, it is
always advisable to be cautious about such statistics.
Finally our study examined only one among many
cultural differences between the United States and
that difference is widely acknowlChina-although
a
to
be
major one. The study should not be
edged
considered a direct test of one of the dimensions of
culture (e.g., Hofstede 1980) in isolation. It did not
address the interplay and influence of other dimensions. Certainly, the two cultures differ in many ways,
and the manifestation of such cultural differences
can be subtle and can influence responses to advertising.
Suggestions for further research clearly include
studies similar to ours employing other cultural values. In addition to individualism and collectivism,
Hofstede (1980) sees cultures placing more or less
value on what he calls "masculinity," 'power distance,"
and "uncertainty avoidance." Recently, he added a
fifth dimension of cultural difference, "long-ternVshortterm orientation," reflecting cultural traits such as
thrift (saving) and perseverance (Hofstede 1994). Testing culturally congruent versus incongruent advertising that varies on these dimensions could be useful. The more we understand about the impact of
culture on the effectiveness of advertising, the more
value advertisers obtain from each advertising dollar-and each cross-cultural study.
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