Download Language Chapter

Chapter Two
Objectives
Reflections: Language can have incredible power, both positively and negatively. Words can be used to
persuade, to threaten or coerce, to galvanize whole populations, to convey ideas, images, stereotypes, to
bring about social transformation. Given the power language has, it is vital that we always be aware of its
potential to shape—even manipulate—our thoughts.
Goals: My goal in this chapter is to show how language can be used to persuade us to one view or
another, shape our perceptions, color our worldview, influence our we see one another. It is vital we step
back and look at the way we use language—or are used by language. Acquiring the skill to watch
language at work helps us in more ways than we can imagine. Not only does it develop our critical
thinking skills so our own abilities are strengthened—it also helps us help others who lack the insights
into the power language can hold over people. By a sense of the key uses of language, we can see the
power it can wield.
The Power of Language
In this chapter, we look at the key uses of language to persuade us to one view or another.
The Persuasive Power of Language
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
Descriptions And Asymmetry
Denotations And Connotations
Culturally Defined Uses Of Language
Euphemisms And Hedging
Ambiguity (Linguistic Fallacies)
Concepts And Definitions
Jargon, Buzzwords And Technical Terms
Metaphors, Images And Analogies
The Passive Voice
Loaded Language
Propaganda
Exclusive Language And Hate Speech
Humor, parody, and satire
The liberatory voice
1. Descriptions and Asymmetry
The language of description may vary according to who or what is being described. The same trait, say
height or weight, may be discussed in quite different terms according to the subject. Asymmetry in
description is common. We often see differences according to gender, age, class, celebrity or renown, and
race. We see asymmetry when words that function similarly mean one thing in one context and
something else in a different context.
2. Denotation and Connotation
The denotation corresponds to a dictionary definition of a term. How we define a term can have
significant consequences. The connotation is the set of associations attached to the word in question,
2-1
indicating a set of values. We see this with the terms “bachelor gal,” “unhitched chick,” and “spinster.”
The terms all refer to unmarried women; but they have different connotations.
3. Culturally Defined Uses Of Language
Our society and culture shape our use of language, by setting out a system of norms. Often nouns,
pronouns, and verbs are flavored with cultural meaning and significance. In some contexts, culturally
defined uses of language have political ramifications. Language is a carrier of values. Words can convey
or connote a set of beliefs and prejudices. Our thoughts and perceptions take place in a certain time and
space.
4. Euphemisms and Hedging
A euphemism acts as a substitute for the targeted word, in order to achieve a particular end. The goal
may be to defuse a situation that is controversial or it could be to slant it with a set of values. Hedging
has the effect of undercutting the claim or raising doubts about it: (1) it can indicate a shift from one
position to a much weaker one; or (2) it can undercut a claim or suggest a negative connotation of a
phrase or claim being made. Loaded language is to be distinguished from colorful, or figurative,
language. With the latter striking images (from ugly to funny to beautiful) are evoked because of the
vivid use of language, but it does not function as a means of persuasion for a particular conclusion.
5. Ambiguity (Linguistic Fallacies)
When ambiguities lead to an incorrect conclusion, we are looking at fallacious reasoning. The three key
linguistic fallacies are: equivocation (where there's a shift of meaning in a word or phrase leading to an
incorrect conclusion), accent (where the emphasis of a word or phrase leads us to an incorrect
conclusion) and amphiboly (where the sentence structure or use of grammar creates an ambiguity,
leading to an incorrect conclusion
6. Concepts and Definitions
There may be any number of possible definitions for a word; but the context may more clearly reveal the
intended meaning. Watch for hidden assumptions or exclusions in the way language is used. Components
of a Definition: There are two parts to any definition: first, the word or phrase to define or clarify. This is
called the definiendum. Then you have the explanation—words meaning the same as the word or phrase
in question. This is called the definiens. Questions about syntax have to do with punctuation, grammar,
word order, and sentence structure. Questions of semantics have to do with the meanings of words, what
they signify. This includes both denotation and connotation: the denotation of a word is the literal
meaning, whereas the connotation is what the word suggests, implies, or conjures up in our minds.
Syntactical errors may seem less worrisome than semantic problems. However, grammatical or structural
errors can create havoc.
7. Jargon, Buzzwords, and Technical Terms
It is wise to watch out for jargon and buzzwords. Try to articulate your understanding of the word or
phrase. “I understand this term to mean…” is one way to clarify your sense of a concept. Spell out how
you think the term is being used. Basically, your goal is to be clear enough so your audience can
understand what’s being said. Legal terms often are used quite specifically, so never assume they have an
ordinary usage.
8. Metaphors and Images
Descriptions may take colorful, dramatic turns. People often turn to metaphor when words fail them.
Metaphors and images can shape an interpretation. Used well, metaphors can leave an impression that
goes far beyond mere linear argumentation. Vivid, even jolting, metaphors can have a powerful effect on
the audience.
2-2
9. The Passive Voice
We use the passive voice when we make the object of an action into the subject of a sentence, as in “The
chicken was eaten by the coyote” (emphasis mine). This form avoids calling attention to the one
performing an action (the coyote). Its focus is the recipient of the action (the chicken). Passive
constructions can be spotted by the use of a form of “to be” followed by a past participle. For instance:
“The agents were contacted by Jason Bourne.” The structure of this is: “The agents were [form of the
verb “to be”] contacted by [past participle] Jason Bourne.” To make it active, change it to: “Jason
Bourne contacted the agents.”
10. Loaded Language
Linguistic shape shifting can transform hot-words to lukewarm or cold ones (and vice versa). Loaded
language is language that is value-laden, heavy with connotation (positive or negative). They can create a
bias, just as neutralized terms can defuse a controversy by making them appear innocuous or acceptable.
Loaded language should not be confused with colorful, or figurative, language. Loaded terms—also
known as “weasel words”—are intended to affect the way we perceive. They are used to manipulate
thinking and, thus, are potentially dangerous
11. Propaganda
Propaganda uses words are used to shape public consciousness, to predispose people to certain ideas,
policies and actions—and to manipulate them to think, vote, and act in as the propaganda machine
suggests. Propaganda can come from all directions—left, right, and center. It is the substance, not the
source that marks propaganda. Cult specialist Margaret Thaler Singer sees propaganda in the center of a
continuum:
Education—Advertising—Propaganda—Indoctrination—Thought Reform
13. Exclusive Language and Hate Speech
The use of demeaning or vitriolic language tends to ignite and sustain prejudice. All too easily this leads
to disrespectful behavior and even hate crimes. Language is part of the way prejudice gets perpetuated.
Mari J. Matsuda set out three characteristics are used to identify hate speech. These are:



The message is that one group is racially inferior.
The message is directed against a historically oppressed group
The message is persecutory, hateful, and degrading.
13. Humor, Parody, and Satire
Humor can help jolt us out of our habitual ways of thinking. Comedy is a powerful vehicle for social
commentary—and for loosening our thought processes! A satire is a work that ridicules or pokes fun at
its subject (people, groups, institutions, countries, etc.) in order to bring about a particular effect, such as
social change.
14. The Liberatory Voice
Language can degrade, as we have seen. But language can also exalt. It is the liberatory aspect of
language that moves us to organize, to effect political change, to address the ills of society, to take one
small step to make our voices heard, to inject reason in the face of madness, goodness in the face of evil.
2-3