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Chapter 12—Principles of Persuasion Chapter Overview The purpose of this chapter is to provide students with theoretical knowledge and fundamental rules based on psychological theory that will aid in understanding cognitive processing and developing persuasion skills. Particular emphasis is placed on social judgment theory and cognitive dissonance. In persuading others we must deal with perceptions and inferences as well as personality differences. This chapter builds upon the knowledge gained in previous chapters. Practical rules and guidelines are provided for use in practice sessions. Learning Objectives for This Chapter To recognize the difficulties of persuasion. To learn the fundamental keys of persuasion. To learn when persuasion is unlikely. To learn the role of diplomacy in persuasion. To practice your persuasion skills. “Many can argue; not many converse.” —Alcott Classroom Activities Activity One Interactive lecture on chapter material. Activity Two Diplomacy practice. (See outline.) Activity Three Persuasion Skill-Building Survivor Game. (See outline.) Activity Four Persuasion Skill-Building Billy Goats Game. (See outline.) Activity Five 89 Role-Playing Exercises and Problems/Persuasion Practice Session. (See outline.) Activity Six Review competency checklist, review questions, and end-of-chapter case material. Lecture Outline I. Social Judgment Theory. A. Persuasion is difficult. 1. Prior to beginning persuasive efforts one must come to GRIP with an overall strategy and goals as explained in previous chapters. 2. Additional psychological theories assist in finding ACES to cross the bridge to persuasion. 3. People perceive through their individual lenses and search for validity in assessing information. In addition to those automatic processes described in previous chapters, we must understand additional cognitive phenomena. 4. Attitude here includes opinions and beliefs. B. Social judgment theory emphasizes the effects of prior attitudes and aids in understanding when and/or how persuasion might be possible. C. Latitudes help to explain the persuasion mystery. 1. The latitude of commitment contains firm attitudes unlikely to change. 2. The latitude of noncommitment describes areas on which little or no prior attitude exists. 3. A latitude of acceptance is created for receiving messages similar to, or not blatantly inconsistent with, prior attitudes. Persuasion is possible here. 4. A latitude of rejection is created for messages inconsistent with or dissimilar to prior attitudes. Persuasion is not possible here. II. Latitudes of Commitment, Noncommitment, Acceptance, and Rejection. A. Some portion of the latitude of commitment will constitute the latitude of rejection. Persuasion is not possible. 90 B. Some portion of the latitude of commitment may be included within the latitude of acceptance. Messages that are not clearly inconsistent with firmly held attitudes in the latitude of commitment are subject to change. And, certainly, messages that are new but clearly consistent with prior attitudes are likely to be accepted. C. The persuasive impact or possibility is greatest in the latitude of noncommitment. D. The disconfirmation bias makes persuasion more difficult. 1. Arguments incompatible with prior beliefs are scrutinized longer, subjected to more refutational analyses, and judged weaker than those arguments compatible with prior beliefs. We seek to prove these messages to be wrong! 2. Research demonstrates that people cannot escape this phenomenon. We cannot evaluate messages independently from prior beliefs. E. We tend to readily accept at face value messages that are compatible with our prior beliefs. F. We try to discredit and undermine messages that are contrary to our prior beliefs. III. Cognitive Dissonance. A. The theory of cognitive dissonance explains additional unconscious cognitive processing that occurs simultaneously with the processing explained by social judgment theory and the other unconscious processing discussed in previous chapters. B. Cognitive dissonance is the psychological tension created when we find inconsistency between our attitude and our behavior, or between two attitudes, or between two behaviors, including when a message seeks adoption of an attitude inconsistent with existing attitudes. It is an out-ofbalance condition. It is uncomfortable. We seek to get back into balance. C. People try to confirm their own attitudes, and people try to avoid dissonance by avoiding decisions! People try to reduce or eliminate dissonance by changing the relative importance of attitudes and beliefs, by 91 distorting their own perceptions, by forgetting the out-of-balance factors, and/or by rejecting what is necessary to create balance. 1. We unconsciously tend to perceive similar statements as more similar than they actually are. This confirms the validity of our pre-existing beliefs. 2. Just as we tend to think everyone is like us (as noted in previous chapters), we tend to think the attitudes and beliefs of others are the same as ours. This is referred to as the false consensus bias. 3. The greater the dissonance, the greater the unconscious reduction efforts. IV. Negativity Bias. Negative information weighs more heavily than does positive information. Truly it is advisable to start off with the good news! V. Preparing Your Arguments to Persuade. You must do more than argue. You must target and hit the latitude of noncommitment or latitude of acceptance. VI. Going for “ACES.” A. Appropriateness is the argument that what you seek is the right thing to do. B. Consistency is the argument for fairness and justice. C. Effectiveness is the argument that provides the answer or solution. D. Special additional factors should be used as possible. VII. Crossing the “CREEK.” In addition to focusing arguments with as many ACES as possible, one must use additional tools to actually persuade. A. Common Ground has been discussed in previous chapters. Mutuality is necessary, because self-benefit provides a reason for the person to consider the argument. B. Reinforce with Supporting Facts and Data to bolster your argument and increase the weight of the argued item in the person’s cognitive balance equation. C. Emotional Connection taps into the power of identification and the positive effects thereof such as trust discussed in a prior chapter. It also provides an opportunity for cognitive connection to something positive in 92 the person’s mind, thus increasing the weight of the argued item in the person’s cognitive balance equation. D. Empathy bolsters the other person’s self-esteem. However, it also tends to diminish the perception of attitudinal differences, and the extent of cognitive dissonance. If I say I agree with you and also want my way, it appears as though we are in agreement! E. Key in every persuasive effort is to maintain your credibility. If you lose that, you lose the argument. 1. Trust is related to credibility, of course. a. Deterrence-based trust is the least effective for persuasive argument in negotiation. b. Knowledge-based trust and identification-based trust enhance credibility and facilitate successful negotiation. 2. Assertion is appropriate. Aggression and pushing are not appropriate and will damage credibility. 3. To avoid being manipulated, periodically ask if anyone but the person arguing will benefit from the proposal. VIII. When Persuasion Is Unlikely. A. Persuasion is unlikely when the argument falls within the person’s latitude of rejection. B. Reframing is possible. Look for different ACES and try again. C. Re-tool to cross the CREEK. Look for more common ground, more reinforcement, more emotional connection, more empathy, and check your credibility! D. Ask why you are not convincing the person. E. Know when to stop. (This knowledge is addressed in later chapters.) IX. Diplomacy is the art of restraining power and the ability to say the nastiest things in the nicest way! (Teaching Note: The best way for students to understand diplomacy is to practice on the three scenarios included in the text that are included below.) 93 (Activity Two.) The exercise may be done by role playing or with open discussion. Scenario One—Assume that someone who reports to you has done something wrong that you, in fact, consider rather stupid. How might you restrain your power and, therefore, be diplomatic? Scenario Two—How might you diplomatically tell someone that there is spinach between the person’s front teeth? Scenario Three—When your hair stylist asks how you like your hair and you feel that you would like to place a bag over your head, how might you respond diplomatically? X. Persuasion Skill-Building Games (Activities Three and Four). The Survivor Game and the Billy Goats Game are included in the text. The instructor should serve as the captain in the first game and as the troll in the second game. The instructor is the judge of the persuasive effectiveness of the arguments. Survivor Game. Divide the class into small teams of three to six members. Each team is to consider the facts and develop arguments to persuade the captain to save their team. The captain (instructor) will decide which team wins and goes along. Facts: You have been shipwrecked on a deserted island. There is enough food to last for a couple of weeks. The water source is sanitary. There seems to be a volcano on the island. It is not currently erupting. There is one raft available. The captain can take only one team. Billy Goat Game. This is a modification of the children’s story about Billy Goats Gruff to practice persuasion. There is a mean troll who lives at the base of the bridge over the creek (the instructor). She enjoys eating billy goats. You may recall from the story that the troll was tricked into not eating two little billy goats only to be later beaten by the big brother billy goat. The troll has decided that she will never go hungry again! When played in teams, the teams 94 should develop their persuasive argument together and send a representative to talk with the troll. The troll is expected to argue back. XI. Role-Playing Exercises and Problems/Persuasion Practice Session (Activity Five). Three scenarios are provided in the text and below. Rearrange the Furniture—You moved into your house two years ago. Time was very short when you arrived. The furniture has been exactly where the movers placed it ever since moving day. You are not particularly happy with the layout. You cannot move the large pieces by yourself. It is a sunny day approximately 70 degrees outside, and you and your spouse both have the day off work. Persuade your spouse to help you rearrange the family room. Buy the House—You have been renting a lovely house for ten months. You love it. You love the neighborhood and the schools, restaurants, and shopping. When you signed the lease you inquired about the possibility of buying. The landlord was firm in wanting to keep this house in the long term. You recently noticed that one of his other houses in the neighborhood just went up for sale. Persuade the landlord to allow you to purchase the house you are renting. Out Spot, Out—You find a sweater while shopping. It is exactly the sweater you have been wanting for years—just like one you previously had that was lost in your last move. It is the perfect color and size for you. It has a small spot and a very slight snag. You are pretty sure that the spot will come out, although you wouldn’t guarantee it to anyone. You also think that your sister can hide the snag. It also has a very expensive price tag on it. Persuade the store personnel to reduce the sweater by 15% or the best you can do. Your Turn—Ask students to think of something which they recently tried to persuade someone to do but failed. Ask them to prepare new persuasive arguments that will work. Performance Competency Checklist Argument alone is unlikely to persuade. In persuading others it is necessary to lead them with information demonstrating that the result is beneficial for all 95 parties. At times, persuasion is not possible. People like to make their own decisions. People search for validity when perceiving information and are unable to evaluate persuasive arguments independent of their prior beliefs. Furthermore, all of the complexities of perception are involved in assessing persuasive arguments. The keys to persuasion are to focus appeals on ACES (appropriateness, consistency, effectiveness, and special things) to cross the CREEK to persuasion with common ground, reinforcement using external data, emotional connection, empathy, and credibility. The most valuable key is credibility, which is related to trust. Each individual has a latitude of acceptance and a latitude of rejection. If the argument is too inconsistent with prior beliefs, the argument will be rejected. If the argument is not incompatible with prior beliefs, it may be accepted. The greatest likelihood of acceptance will attach to arguments regarding matters on which the person holds no prior opinion. Consideration of arguments incompatible with prior beliefs causes cognitive dissonance and may trigger selective processing along with efforts to refute the argument. Selective processing includes the false consensus bias, disconfirmation bias, and negativity bias. Diplomacy facilitates effective negotiation. Becoming more persuasive in negotiation requires practice. Key Terms, Phrases, and Concepts Attitude Social Judgment Theory Latitudes of Commitment, Noncommitment, Acceptance, and Rejection Disconfirmation Bias Cognitive Dissonance Negativity Bias ACES CREEK 96 Review Questions and Answers T F 1. Social judgment theory holds that people search for valid, or correct, attitudes. (Answer: True.) T F 2. Sometimes attempts to persuade are futile, or doomed to failure. (Answer: True.) T F 3. Appropriateness, consistency, and effectiveness are the best ways to ground one’s arguments. (Answer: True.) T F 4. Credibility is the single most important ingredient of persuasion. (Answer: True.) 5. Explain the latitude of indifference. (Answer: It is also known as the latitude of noncommitment and is the area of no prior strong attitudes.) 6. Explain how cognitive dissonance affects persuasive message processing. (Possible Responses: The pressure to reduce or eliminate dissonance causes forgetting, distorted perceptions, and re-weighting of cognitive elements.) 7. Explain the difference between a belief and an attitude. (Possible Responses: A belief is something one knows to be true. An attitude is a positive or negative (good or bad) value assessment. For persuasive argument they may be considered the same.) 8. Why is it true that sometimes the most skilled negotiator will not succeed in persuasion? (Answer: Even the most skilled negotiators make mistakes. However, sometimes persuasion is not possible in the latitude of rejection.) 9. Why do soft words make a hard argument more susceptible to acceptance? (Answer: This is the essence of diplomacy. People like to make their own decisions. Leading works; pushing does not work.) 10. Identify the steps in crossing the CREEK to persuasion. (Answer: Common ground, reinforcement with support, emotional connection, empathy, credibility.) Case 12.1 97 Your investment firm stands to gain a substantial amount of business if the country’s tax laws are amended to promote self-directed retirement savings in the private sector. You must make three persuasive presentations. One presentation will be made to a group of individuals who are all between the ages of 40 and 55. Another will be to a group of individuals who are all under 30 years of age. The final one is to lawmakers. In each case you seek to convince the group to agree to endorse your proposed change. Case Discussion Questions and Possible Responses: 1. How will you assess the prior attitudes of each group? What effects will prior attitudes have on their perceptions of your argument? What might you learn about each group’s attitude here by applying the theory of attribution? (Possible Responses: Pre-existing attitudes may be researched by reference to available opinion polls and analysis of generational information. The Congressional record is another source for lawmakers’ attitudes. Prior attitudes will affect persuasive message processing. The effect will vary depending on the latitude in which the argument falls. Applying the theory of attribution (addressed in an earlier chapter) to the analysis is consistent with the general caution for the argument receiver to always ask who benefits from the proposal. Since such benefit is a fact, it should not be hidden. Benefit to others must be stressed. Attribution is likely to be made to internal causes as people assume that most investment companies would seek proposals for financial gain. The fundamental attributional error would also result in nonbelief of the proposal.) 2. How different are the ACE arguments that you would use for each group? How many ACES can you find for each group? (Possible Responses: The ACES will be as different as the differences in beliefs among the groups. Appropriateness may work for the older group and for the lawmakers. Effectiveness is relevant for the younger group and for the lawmakers. It will be important to develop an effectiveness argument for the older group as well. When we combine learning from prior chapters with the material in this chapter we discover that one tool for persuasion is to seek to discover the 98 foundation of existing beliefs. The challenge is to whittle away at the foundations underlying resistance. If proof of error in prior attitudes is given in persistent and increasing doses, it may be possible to make room for your argument in the receiver’s latitude of acceptance.) 3. Can you use knowledge-based trust to enhance your credibility here? What information do you need, and how will you use this trust? (Possible Responses: Knowledge-based trust should be applicable here. The firm should use its expertise to support its proposal with comparative information on the existing and proposed system for both groups, including pre-tax and after-tax wealth growth.) Optional Suggested Assignments Ask students to note advertisements, both print and televised, that have persuaded them and analyze why they were persuaded. Their analyses should use the chapter material. Ask students to attempt to persuade someone of something during the next week and analyze why they were successful or unsuccessful using the chapter material. Ask students to analyze a recent occasion or one that occurs during the coming week in which someone tried to persuade them of something. Their analyses should explain why they were persuaded or not persuaded, using the chapter material. Ask students to write a short paper discussing why it is that a liar cannot believe anyone else. 99