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CHAPTER 26
1. What is the difference between a “repertoire” and a “canon”? How does this distinction
apply to Puccini?
The “repertoire” consists of music that is regularly performed and enjoys an enduring popularity
with audiences. The “canon” is the collection of musical works considered to be advanced,
serious, and worthy of study (by historicists). Since the late nineteenth century, the two have
diverged considerably, and nowhere is this more apparent than in the reception history of
Puccini. Puccini’s operas are very popular repertoire items, but since his style is not progressive
in the way traditionally valued in German-centric, historicist scholarship, he has not won a place
in the canon.
2. Define “Orientalism,” and describe some cultural reasons for its popularity. What
musical techniques are used to represent the exotic in Bizet’s Carmen and in other operas?
In which countries did “Orientalism” prove to be most attractive?
“Orientalism” refers to the Western representation of non-Western people in a way that
emphasizes exotic difference, foregrounding the contrast between “us” (Europeans) and “them”
(“Others”). As a cultural outgrowth of colonialism, orientalism allowed Europeans to
symbolically control their colonial subjects through portrayals that were ethnocentric and
condescending. It was thus a fitting ideological counterpart to imperialistic adventures around
the globe. Further, orientalism was a consequence of repression: It allowed Europeans to subvert
the social norms in a safe context (e.g., lurid representations of sex and violence were acceptable
so long as the culprits were sufficiently Other). Musical orientalism was most popular in France
and Russia.
Orientalism is expressed musically through techniques that mark a character or situation as
Other. For instance, in Carmen, the title character is given Spanish and Latin American dance
forms (habanera and seguidilla, specifically) and hyper-chromatic melodies that suggest excess
and uncontained sexuality. Russian operas such as Borodin’s Prince Igor are marked with
orientalist melodic undulations, chromatic passing tones, prominent rhythms, and orchestration
(particularly the English Horn, with its “snake-charmer’s pipe” connotations).
3. What is opéra lyrique, and how did it differ from grand opéra and opéra comique?
Opéra lyrique is a French genre that employs reduced dramatic forces and focuses on
characterization through melodies reminiscent of popular song. Its main practitioner is Charles
Gounod. The genre differs from grand opéra in scale (it calls for fewer characters and less
complex structures), style (more comedic elements and influence from domestic songs and
ballroom dances), and topics (less emphasis on epic historical narratives). It also differs from
opéra comique, a one-act style that mixes spoken dialogue with music (i.e., no accompanied
recitative) and revolves around farcical topics.
4. What is operetta? In what countries did it flourish, and who were its main composers?
How did operettas parody serious opera?
Operettas are one-act “little operas” with frivolous, satirical storylines. Unlike the other major
genres of European opera at the time, the operetta includes spoken dialogue. It flourished in
France, the Austro-Hungarian Empire, and England, and its representative composers include
Jacques Offenbach, Johann Strauss, and Gilbert and Sullivan. Operettas parody serious opera by
playfully mocking its conventions and tropes. For example, Offenbach’s Orphée aux enfers
draws on the most classic of operatic premises (the Orpheus myth) only to poke fun and end with
a garish cancan. Gilbert and Sullivan wrote enormously popular spoofs of major serious operas
that include ridiculous contrapuntal writing and “patter song” (a parody of opera buffa).
5. What is verismo as a literary movement? How do verismo operas such as Pagliacci reflect
the realistic aims of the movement?
Verismo, or “truthism,” is an Italian literary movement that aimed for emotional directness,
stylistic simplicity, and human-scale stories, often involving contemporary characters and
situations (including the lower classes). Its principle leader, Giovanni Verga, strove to present a
journalistic reading of his topics: “just the facts” without any bias or subjective, authorial
guidance. (This strategy of artless simplicity is highly manipulative, of course.) The movement is
reflected in verismo operas such as Pagliacci, which features the titillating story of a jealous,
murderous husband. The brutal conclusion is meant to shock, but no ethical judgments or social
critiques are forthcoming from the composer (remember, verismo is meant to give the audience
“nothing but the facts”). The opera depicts lower class life (in an orientalizing manner), and its
music is non-virtuosic. Realism is further exemplified by the lack of melodic repetitions in
certain solo numbers, which gives the impression that the character is singing ad lib.
6. Discuss Puccini’s effective use of local color and reminiscence motifs in Madama
Butterfly, especially in the aria “Un bel dì.”
The first act of Madama Butterfly incorporates Japanese folk songs (set in the characteristic
pentatonic scale) to add local color. Further, Puccini quotes the opening phrases of “The StarSpangled Banner,” since orientalism is built on contrast (i.e., the East is only exotic in relation to
the West). Later on, the composer makes effective use of reminiscence motifs in the opera’s
signature aria, “Un bel dì.” The opening phrase, in which the title character fantasizes about the
eventual return of her American husband, returns at the end of the aria in a triumphant treatment.
This metamorphosis is helped along by the orchestra, which steps in to fill out the melody. This
tune appears throughout the rest of the opera to remind the audience both of Chô-San’s false
hopes and of her impending doom.