Download Explorer Fact Sheet – Biographies

Explorer Fact Sheet
AMERIGO VESPUCCI
Born in Florence, Italy, March 9 1451, Amerigo Vespucci, for whom America is named, played a major part in
exploring the New World.
The father of Amerigo Vespucci was Nastagio Vespucci, and his uncle was the learned Dominican Giorgio
Antonio Vespucci, who had charge of Amerigo's education. The entire family was cultured and friendly with
the Medici rulers of Florence, a family that ruled Italy from the 1400s to 1737. Domenico Ghirlandaio (1449–
1494) painted Amerigo in a family portrait when the youth was about nineteen. However, the explorer had
reached his forties by the time he began his voyage to America, so Ghirlandaio's painting shows only an
approximate idea of Vespucci's mature appearance.
It is known that Vespucci visited France, in his uncle's company, when he was about twenty-four years old, and
that his father intended for him a business career. He did get involved in business, first in Florence and then in
Seville, Spain, in a bank. Later, in Seville, he entered a partnership with a fellow Florentine, Gianetto Berardi,
and this lasted until Berardi's death at the end of 1495.
Meanwhile, Christopher Columbus (1451–1506) had made his first two voyages to the West Indies, and he
returned from the second in June 1496. At this time, he and Vespucci met and talked, and Amerigo appears to
have been doubtful of Columbus's belief that he had already reached the outskirts of Asia. Moreover, Vespucci's
curiosity about the new lands had been aroused, together with a determination—though no longer young—to
see them himself.
According to a controversial letter, Vespucci embarked from Cadiz, Spain, in a Spanish fleet on May 10, 1497.
Serious doubts have been raised about the letter's authenticity (based on fact), because dates in the letter do not
coordinate with authenticated events, and because the voyage, if made, presents serious geographical problems
and seems to have passed unnoticed by the cartographers (mapmakers) and historians of the time.
If the letter is real, the ships passed through the West Indies—sighting no islands—and in thirty-seven days
reached the mainland somewhere in Central America. This would predate Columbus's discovery of the
mainland of Venezuela by a year. On their return to Spain, Vespucci's men discovered the inhabited island of
"Iti," identified by some as Bermuda. However, by 1522 the Bermudas were unpopulated. The expedition
returned to Cadiz in October 1498.
Vespucci, in all probability, voyaged to America at the time noted, but he did not have command and as yet had
had no practical experience piloting a ship. Inexperience could explain many of the errors in the letter, but the
strong likelihood remains that the letter was altered.
In 1499 Vespucci sailed again, and this time there is proof of the expedition besides his own letters. His
education had included mathematics, and he had surely learned a great deal from his first crossing. From Cadiz,
they first dropped to the Cape Verde Islands and then divided forces in the Atlantic. Vespucci explored to Cape
Santo Agostinho, at the shoulder of Brazil, after which he coasted westward past the Maracaibo Gulf. This may
have been the first expedition to touch Brazil as well as the first to cross the Equator in New World waters.
During these travels, Vespucci probably discovered the mouth of the Amazon River.
Two years later Amerigo went on his most important voyage, this time for King Manuel I (1469–1521) to
Brazil. Vespucci, having already been to the Brazilian shoulder, seemed the person best qualified to go as an
observer with the new expedition. Vespucci did not command at the start but ultimately took charge at the
request of the Portuguese officers.
This voyage traced the South American coast from a point above Cape Sào Roque to Patagonia. Among the
important discoveries were Guanabara Bay (Rio de Janeiro) and the Rio de la Plata, which soon began to appear
on maps as Rio Jordán. The expedition returned by way of Sierra Leone and the Azores, and Vespucci, in a
letter to Florence, called South America Mundus Novus (New World).
In 1503 Amerigo sailed in Portuguese service again to Brazil, but this expedition failed to make new
discoveries. The fleet broke up, the Portuguese commander's ship disappeared, and Vespucci could proceed
only a little past Bahia before returning to Lisbon, Portugal, in 1504. He never sailed again.
In 1507 a group of scholars at St-Dié in Lorraine brought out a book of geography entitled "Cosmographiae
introductio." One of the authors, Martin Waldseemüller, suggested the name America, especially for the
Brazilian part of the New World, in honor of "the illustrious man who discovered it." After some debate, the
name was eventually adopted.
During his last years, Amerigo held the office of pilot major, and it became his duty to train pilots, examine
them for ability in their craft, and collect data regarding New World navigation. He remained pilot major until
his death on February 22, 1512, a month short of his fifty-eighth birthday.
Explorer Fact Sheet
JOHN CABOT
Giovanni Caboto (Italian), known as John Cabot in the English language, was an Italian navigator and explorer
who is popularly credited as the modern discoverer of the region that would become Canada.
He was born Giovanni Caboto, but later made England his base of operations and is best known as John Cabot
for his explorations made under the English flag. Most notably, in 1497, he set sail from Bristol on his ship the
Matthew looking for a sea route to Asia. He ended up in North America, he and his men being the first
Europeans since the Vikings verifiably known to have done so.
Cabot's birthplace is uncertain; some references give Genoa, others Gaeta. The date was around 1451, but he
moved to Venice in his youth, and later became a Venetian citizen.
It was probably on hearing of Columbus's discovery of 'the Indies' that he decided to find a route to the west for
himself. He went with his plans to England, because:
He incorrectly thought spices were coming from northern Asia
A degree of longitude is shorter the further one is from the equator, so the voyage from western Europe to
eastern Asia would be shorter at higher latitudes.
King Henry VII of England gave him a grant "full and free authoritie, leave, and power, to sayle to all partes,
countreys, and seas, of the East, of the West, and of the North, under our banners and ensignes, with five ships
... and as many mariners or men as they will have in saide ships, upon their own proper costes and charges, to
seeke out, discover, and finde, whatsoever iles, countreyes, regions or provinces of the heathen and infidelles,
whatsoever they bee, and in what part of the world soever they be, whiche before this time have beene
unknowen to all Christians."
Cabot went to Bristol to make the preparations for his voyage. Bristol by then was the second-largest seaport in
England, and during the years from 1480 onwards several expeditions had been sent out to look for Hy-Brasil,
an island that would lie somewhere in the Atlantic Ocean according to Celtic legends. Some people think
Newfoundland may have been found on (one of) these voyages.
Cabot left with only one vessel, the Matthew, a small ship (50 tons), but fast and able. The crew consisted of
only 18 people. He departed on either 2 May or 20 May, 1497 (he had also made a voyage in 1496, but got no
further than Iceland). He sailed to Dursey Head, Ireland, from where he sailed due west to Asia - or so he
thought. He landed on the American east coast at 24 June, 1497. His precise landing-place is a matter of much
controversy. He went ashore to take possession of the land, and explored the coast for some time, probably
departing on 20 July. On the homeward voyage his sailors thought they were going too far north, so Cabot
sailed a more southerly course, reaching Brittany instead of England. On 6 August he arrived back in Bristol.
The location of Cabot's first landfall is still unknown, because of lack of evidence. Many experts think it was on
Cape Breton Island or Nova Scotia, but others look for it in Newfoundland, Labrador or Maine. We might never
know the truth. His men may have been the first Europeans on either American continent since the Vikings:
Christopher Columbus did not find it until his third voyage, in 1498, and letters referring to a voyage by
Amerigo Vespucci in 1497 are generally believed to have been forgeries or fabrications.
Back in England, Cabot was well rewarded (a pension of 20 pounds a year), and a patent was written for a new
voyage. The next year, 1498, he departed again, with 5 ships this time. Except for one of the ships, that soon
after departure made for an Irish port because of distress, nothing was heard from the expedition, or of John
Cabot, ever since.
John's son Sebastian Cabot later made a voyage to North America, looking for the Northwest Passage (1508),
and one to repeat Magellan's voyage around the world, which ended up looking for silver along the River Plate
(1525-8).
In 1498-1500 a few Portuguese travelers, Miguel and Gaspar Corte-Real being the most famous participants,
visited Greenland, Labrador and Newfoundland. In 1501-1505 an English syndicate, consisting of 3 Azoreans
and 2 English traders, made voyages to Newfoundland. From 1504, if not before, Breton, Basque, Portuguese
and English fishermen crossed the ocean to catch fish on the Newfoundland banks.
The Cabot Tower in the centre of Bristol, England.
Cabot is remembered in Bristol by the Cabot Tower, a 30m tall red sandstone tower of 1897 (the 400th
anniversary of the landing) on Brandon Hill near the city centre, and by a replica of the Matthew which is
moored in the city docks.
Explorer Fact Sheet
SIR FRANCIS DRAKE
Francis Drake was probably born in Devon around 1540 and, though they denied it, was almost certainly distant
kin to the gentle family of Drakes of that county. Hardly anything certain is known of him until he appears as
engaged in the trade to the Guinea coast in 1565. Two years later, he leaped into fame as commander of a ship
in the squadron of his kinsman, Hawkins, trading, in defiance of prohibitions, to Spanish America. Hawkins and
Drake were treacherously set upon in the harbor of St. Juan de Lua and all their vessels, but two, were
destroyed. On their return, they moved the English government to demand redress but, failing in this, decided to
recoup themselves by 'piratical' expeditions against Spanish commerce.
In 1570, 1571 & 72, Drake made three successive voyages to the West Indies and, on the third of these, took
and sacked the town of Nombre de Dios, then the Atlantic depot of the gold and silver from the mines of the
Pacific coast. Much of the plunder of the town had to be abandoned owing to a severe wound received by Drake
in the attack, but much was gained and brought home; and it was upon this voyage that Drake, for the first time,
saw, from the top of a great tree, the Pacific Ocean and vowed to sail an English ship on it.
In 1577, therefore, he undertook, in his famous ship the Pelican or Golden Hind of 100 tons, and with four
smaller vessels, the passage to the 'South Seas' by the Straits of Magellan. In the course of this voyage, in which
he was deserted by one ship, lost another in a storm and had to break up the other two as unseaworthy, Drake
successfully accomplished the dangerous passage, was driven south as far as latitude 57 degrees, sailed up the
Pacific coast of South America, plundered Valparaiso, took the Cacafuego (the richest prize in history) and
cruised north as far as San Francisco. Then, thinking it safer not to return by the Straits, struck, without chart or
pilot, across the Pacific to the Ladrones Islands. Off Celebes the Golden Hind stuck on a rock for twenty hours,
floated off unhurt, touched at Java and again at Sierra Leone and finally reached England, laden with spices as
well as with Spanish treasure, in September 1580.
The Spanish ambassador, naturally enough, demanded that the crew should be hanged as pirates; but Queen
Elizabeth I was able to prove that the Spaniards were perpetually stirring up insurrections in Ireland and
England against her government and treating English ships in much the same way as Drake had treated Spanish.
Further, she asserted the right of Englishmen to sail any seas, in defiance of the Spanish claim to regard the
Pacific as a mare clausum; and she emphasized her protest by knighting Drake.
In 1582, the successful adventurer became Mayor of Plymouth and also, unofficially, the government's chief
adviser on naval affairs. He sat in Parliament, in 1585, and in the autumn of that year was sent in command of
twenty-five sail to exact, in Spanish America, reprisals for the embargo which Philip had just laid on all English
ships. On that voyage, Drake plundered Vigo in Spain, then crossed the Atlantic and took and held to ransom
San Domingo, Carthagena and several towns in Florida, relieved and brought home the first colonists of
Virginia and returned to England in the summer of 1586.
In the following spring, he was sent to repeat his exploits in the harbors of Spain herself, where ships were now
being openly prepared for the invasion of England. He pushed right into Cadiz and sank, burned or carried away
thirty-eight ships. If the Queen had allowed him to go on and do the same thing in Lisbon the Armada would
never have been able to sail when it did. In the defeat of that fleet, when it came at last, Drake's share was the
primary one and he was constantly urging the government to greater and greater exertions by sea.
In the 'Counter Armada' of 1589, he was less successful but managed to burn the shipping and part of the town
of Coruna. Troops were landed for an attack on Lisbon, which failed, and Drake was accused of staying outside
the harbour, picking up prizes. For the next five years, there is little trace of his activity and his last expedition
(1595) with Sir John Hawkins to the West Indies was utterly unsuccessful. The Spaniards were forewarned and
every port in America was fortified. Hawkins died off Porto Rico and Drake off Porto Bello. He was buried at
sea.
Drake was, essentially, the greatest of all the Elizabethan sailors: a man ready for any adventure, beloved and
followed by his men, yet absolute master on his own deck. A man, moreover, of the highest practical
intelligence in all walks of life and, of this, no better example can be given than the 'leat' which still bears his
name and still carries the pure water of Dartmoor to the town of Plymouth. His letters are models of shrewd
common sense and many picturesque touches in them are still remembered.
Explorer Fact Sheet
JACQUES CARTIER
Jacques Cartier (1491-1557), French explorer and navigator, may truly be said to have discovered Canada. His
voyages were the key to the cartography of the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and he named the land around it
"Canada."
Born in Saint-Malo in Brittany, Jacques Cartier probably had already been on trading and exploring missions to
Brazil and Newfoundland when Francis I of France first approached him about a French expedition to the New
World in 1532. In April 1534 Cartier set out in two ships to discover, if he could, "certain islands and lands
where it is said that a great quantity of gold and other precious things are to be found."
Cartier had a remarkably good run, reaching Newfoundland after a mere 20 days. It says much about Cartier's
skill as navigator as well as about 16th-century navigation that his calculation of the latitude of Cape Bonavista,
Newfoundland, was only about 11 miles off its true latitude. West of the Strait of Belle Isle, Cartier encountered
a French ship from La Rochelle. It is clear from his account that French and Portuguese fishermen had
frequented these coasts for some time past. It is altogether probable that western European fishermen had been
fishing around Newfoundland well before even John Cabot's voyage of 1497.
Cartier disliked the inhospitable look of the land on the south coast of Labrador and turned southward along the
west coast of Newfoundland, crossed the Gulf of St. Lawrence, sighted the fertile Prince Edward Island, and
arrived in mid-July 1534 at Gaspé on the mainland. After exploring Anticosti Island in the St. Lawrence estuary
but, because of bad weather, missing the St. Lawrence River, he returned to France, arriving in Saint-Malo in
September 1534.
Almost at once he was re-commissioned by Francis I for a more imposing expedition in 1535, this time with
three ships, including the Grande Hermine. Leaving Saint-Malo in the middle of May, Cartier went straight for
the estuary of the St. Lawrence where he had left off the year before. Using information gained from natives, he
went up the great river, nothing how the water turned gradually from salt to fresh, and arrived at the site of the
Iroquois village of Stadacona (modern Quebec City) early in September 1535. He continued up the river,
anchored his ship, the Emérillon, at Lake St. Peter, and made the rest of his way to the native village of
Hochelaga (modern Montreal) by longboat. There he arrived in October and found a thriving, fortified Iroquois
village nestled at the foot of a hill which he called Mont Réal. From the top of this hill he could see the rapids,
later to be called Lachine, which blocked further navigation westward.
Cartier spent the winter of 1535-1536 back at Stadacona, where his men had built a primitive fort. It was a cold
winter even by Canadian standards. From mid-November until mid-April Cartier's ships were icebound. Worse
still was scurvy, brought on by absence of fresh fruit and vegetables-basically the lack of vitamin C. Of Cartier's
110 men, only 10 were still well by February 1536, and 25 men eventually died. The the native peoples had a
remedy for scurvy which Cartier learned about just in time: an infusion made from the bark of white cedar
which produced massive quantities of vitamin C and by which the men were quickly restored.
Cartier returned to France in May 1536 and took 10 Indians (including 4 children) with him, promising to bring
them back to Canada on his next voyage. However, all but one of them had died by the time the next expedition
got under way in 1541. This time the expedition was under the leadership of Jean François de la Rocque de
Roberval, and it was much larger than the earlier ones, with settlers included among about 1,500 men and with
eight ships. Cartier left before Roberval, who was waiting for his guns, and arrived in August 1541 at
Stadacona.
This time Cartier set up camp a few miles above Stadacona, wintered more comfortably than before, and,
finding no sign of Roberval in the spring, set off for France in June 1542. At St. John's harbor, Newfoundland,
Cartier met Roberval, who ordered him to return to Quebec. For a variety of reasons, some of them related
doubtless to deteriorating relations with the native population, Cartier preferred not to return and slipped away
for France under the cover of darkness. He settled down at a country estate not far from Saint-Malo. In 1520 he
had married Catherine des Granches, but they had no children. Cartier died on Sept. 1, 1557, at Saint-Malo.
Explorer Fact Sheet
CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS
There is a debate over the date and place of birth of Christopher Columbus, but it is generally accepted that he
was born in Genoa, Italy in 1451. His father was Domenico Colombo who worked as a wool weaver His mother
was Susanna Fontanarossa. He had three brothers, Bartolomeo, Giovanni Pelligrino and Giacomo.
Most of the information about Columbus’ early life and childhood is unavailable, and we can only rely on
accounts taken from his writings. Columbus claims in one of his journals that he had gone to the sea as early as
the age of 10.
Europe had an established land route to Asia (China and India) under the Mongol Empire. Both these countries
were vital sources of silk, spices and opiates. With the Fall of Constantinople in 1453 and the conquest of Egypt
by the Ottoman Empire made the land route and the route via the Red Sea respectively, extremely difficult for
the Europeans.
It was then that the Portuguese sailors began sailing around Africa to reach Asia. This was an eastward route.
What Columbus proposed was a westward route to reach Asia.
He calculated the distance based on Marinus of Tyre and judged the circumference of the Earth to be
approximately 25,000 kilometers. Experts, however, did not agree with him. Based on the calculations of
Eratosthenes, the circumference of the Earth was held to be 40,000 kilometers and thus any distance westward
would be too long. Most ships of the day would therefore be unable to carry the necessary supplies of fresh
water and food for that long a distance.
In 1485, Columbus made an appeal to King John II of Portugal to fund his voyages. Along with this request he
also asked to be made a "Great Admiral of the Ocean", be made the Governor of all the lands he would discover
and be given a tenth of the revenue from these lands. This proposal was considered by the experts of the court
and was rejected.
In 1488 he made another appeal, but in vain. He also appealed to Genoa and Venice, but returned empty handed
from both these places. He had also made an appeal to Henry VII of England via his brother. But before Henry
VII’s agreement to the plans could reach Columbus, he had already committed himself to Spain.
King Ferdinand II of Aragon and Queen Isabella I of Castile had married and united the two largest kingdoms
of Spain and were ruling it together. He appealed to them in 1486 and they too submitted his ideas to the court
experts. These experts also judged his distance calculations to be far too short. But in order to retain Columbus,
they endowed him with an annual annuity and a letter that ordered all the Spanish cities and towns to provide
him with free lodging and food.
Finally in 1492, he succeeded in getting the agreement of the King and Queen to proceed on his voyages. The
contract between them made Columbus the "Admiral of the Seas" and made him the Viceroy and Governor of
the new lands. He would also get an option to buy one-eighth of the interest in any commercial venture with the
new lands and get one-eighth of the profits.
On the 3rd of August, 1492, Columbus finally departed for his voyage in 3 ships named: Santa Maria, Pinta and
Santa Clara. He then sailed to the Canary Islands, restocked his provisions and made repairs. The voyage
continued. In October, an island was sighted and named San Salvador. This is the present day Bahamas. He then
came to Cuba and Hispaniola. The Santa Maria ran aground at Hispaniola on Christmas Day. He was forced to
spend a week in Lisbon due to a storm and finally returned to Spain in 1493. He then proceeded to make
extravagant descriptions of the islands that he had discovered in the court.
His second voyage began on the 24th of September, 1493 and he set sail from Cadiz. This time, he had 17 ships
containing about 1200 men to colonize the islands he had discovered. This time too he stocked up at the Canary
Islands before he moved on. He named the Dominica in November 1943, landed at Santa Maria la Galante, then
sailed past Les Saintes, and arrived at Guadeloupe. He then turned his course northwards, sighted and named
Montserrat, Antigua, Redonda, Nevis, Saint Kitts, Sint Eustatius, Saba, Saint Martin, Saint Croix, and the
Virgin Islands. In 1493, he landed at Puerto Rico.
Columbus then returned to Spain via Hispaniola, Cuba, Jamaica and Hispaniola again. On the 30th May, 1498,
he undertook his third voyage with 6 ships and sailed from Sanlucar in Spain. He then went to Porto Santo,
Madeira, Canary Islands and then to Cape Verde. In July, he landed on the island of Trinidad and in August in
the Gulf of Paria. After exploring the mainland of South America, he set sail to Margarita Island from where he
sailed to Tobago and Grenada. In August he returned to Hispaniola to find his Spanish settlers discontented.
They had discovered that they had been misled by Colombo’s exaggerated versions of the riches prevalent on
these islands.
He even hanged a few of his crew members for disobedience. Upon his return to Spain, several settlers
complained against him and his brothers for mismanagement.
With three voyages behind him and age finally catching up with him, Columbus in his 50s, was suffering from
arthritis and opthalmia. In 1499, he sent a request to the King of Spain to send him a Royal Commissioner to
help govern the territories. The Commissioner, Francisco de Bobadilla arrived in 1500 when Columbus was
away. This gave the disgruntled settlers an opportunity to complain about Columbus’ and his brothers’
atrocities. Upon his return, Columbus and his brothers were chained and sent back to Spain as prisoners.
After being in jail for over 6 weeks, King Ferdinand finally had them released and then some time later, the
King and the Queen had an audience with Columbus and his brothers. Their freedom and wealth were thereafter
restored, and a fourth voyage was planned.
However, this time Columbus did not gain any permission to become Governor of the lands. In May 1502,
Columbus sailed once more with 4 ships. He went to Arzilla and then on to Cabaret on the island of Martinique,
and intended to head on towards Hispaniola because a storm was brewing. But he was denied shelter at Santo
Domingo and so his ships sheltered at the mouth of the Rio Jaina. Ignoring Columbus’ predictions of a storm,
the governor sent the first Spanish treasure fleet which then drowned, taking 500 lives and a cargo of gold.
Thereafter, Columbus sailed to Jamaica, Central America, the Bay Islands, and finally arrived at Honduras in
July. There he explored Honduras, Nicaragua and Costa Rica before heading off again to Panama where he
arrived in October. After surviving a great storm in December, the crew began to explore Panama. In May 1503,
he sighted the Cayman Islands but on their way to Hispaniola, the ships sustained a lot of damage.
The ships and crew were stranded on Jamaica for over a year while some sailors paddled to Hispaniola in a
canoe in search for help. The governor refused to help them. Meanwhile, his men were starving. So Columbus
used the Ephemeris of the German astronomer Regiomontanus and predicted a lunar eclipse correctly. Finally,
help arrived in 1504, and Columbus and his men returned to Sanlucar in Spain in November 1504.
Christopher Columbus died on the 20th of May, 1506. Till the end of his days he kept demanding for his 10%
share of profits, which the King and Queen denied him since he had been stripped of Governorship. He also
died convinced that his journeys had taken him to the east coast of Asia. His remains are preserved in the
Cathedral of Seville in Spain borne by four statues representing the Kingdoms of Navarre, Castille, Aragon and
Leon.
Explorer Fact Sheet
SIR WALTER RALEIGH
The English statesman Sir Walter Raleigh was born in Devonshire, England sometime during 1552. He was not
only an explorer but also a soldier, explorer, and a man of letters (a distinguished writer). As a champion of
overseas expansion into the New World, Raleigh was a victim of mistrust and Spanish hatred.
Born into a wealthy family, Walter Raleigh (or Ralegh) was the son of a farmer who earned a great deal of
money in shipping ventures. Through his father, Raleigh gained an interest in seafaring. Raleigh spent time at
Oriel College, Oxford, England, before leaving to join the Huguenot (Protestant) army in the French religious
war in 1569. Five years in France saw him safely through two major battles and the massacre of St.
Bartholomew's Day, where beginning August 24, 1572, more than seventy thousand French protestants were
killed. By 1576 he was in London as a lodger at the Middle Temple and saw his poems in print. His favorite
poetic theme, the temporary state of all earthly things, was popular with other poets of the Renaissance, a time
of great cultural change led by the works of great artists and writers.
After two years in obscurity, Raleigh accompanied his half brother, Sir Humphrey Gilbert, on a voyage
apparently in search of a Northwest Passage to the Orient (Eastern Asia). The voyage quickly developed into a
privateering mission against the Spanish, where Raleigh hired out his ship to attack the Spanish. On their return
in 1579, Raleigh and Gilbert faced the displeasure of the Privy Council, the advisors to the King. Raleigh's
behavior did little to please the council, and he was imprisoned twice in six months for disturbing the peace.
Once out of jail, and at the head of a company of soldiers, he sailed to serve in the Irish wars.
Extravagant in dress and behavior, handsome, and superbly self-confident, Raleigh rose rapidly at court, which
consisted of the royal family and its advisors. His opinion of Ireland was accepted by Queen Elizabeth (1558–
1603), and she kept him home as an adviser. He received royal favor as well, including a house in London and
two estates in Oxford.
Raleigh was knighted (given the honorary distinction of knighthood) in 1584 and the next year became the chief
officer of the stannaries (or mines) in Devon and Cornwall, lord lieutenant of Cornwall, and vice admiral of the
West. Although he was hated for his arrogance, his reforms (improvements) of the mining codes made him very
popular. He sat for Devonshire in the Parliaments (meetings of the governing body of England) of 1584 and
1586 and then went on to succeed Sir Christopher Hatton as captain of the Queen's Guard—his highest office at
court.
By 1582 Humphrey Gilbert had organized a company to settle English Catholics in the Americas. Although
forbidden by Elizabeth to accompany his half brother, Raleigh invested money and a ship of his own design to
the mission. After Gilbert's death on the return from Newfoundland, a region that is now a province of eastern
Canada, Raleigh was given a charter (authority from the queen) to "occupy and enjoy" new lands. Raleigh
sailed as soon as he had his charter and reached the Carolina shore of America, claiming the land for himself.
At the same time, Raleigh sought to persuade Elizabeth into a more active role in his proposed colonizing
venture, which would settle lands newly discovered in America. Although unconvinced, she reluctantly gave a
ship and some funds. Raleigh remained at court and devoted his energies to financing the operation. The first
settlers were transported by Raleigh's cousin Sir Richard Grenville (1542–1591). Fights, lack of discipline, and
hostile Indians led the colonists to return to England with Francis Drake (c.1543–1596) in 1586, bringing with
them potatoes and tobacco—two things unknown in Europe until that time.
John White (died c.1593) led a second expedition the next year. The coming of the Spanish Armada (a large
fleet of warships) delayed the sending of supplies for more than two years. When the relief ships reached the
colony in 1591, it had vanished. Raleigh sent other expeditions to the Virginia coast but failed to establish a
permanent settlement there. His charter would eventually be withdrawn by James I (1566–1625) in 1603.
In 1591 Raleigh was to have gone to sea in search of the Spanish fleet, but Elizabeth refused permission.
Instead, Grenville was sent and soon trapped by Spanish forces. Raleigh raised a new fleet to avenge his cousin.
Upon his return Raleigh was imprisoned for a short time in the Tower of London because the queen had
discovered his relationship with Elizabeth Throgmorton, one of her own maids of honor. (Raleigh later married
Elizabeth Throgmorton.)
In 1596 Raleigh and his court rival, Robert Devereux (1566–1601), led a brilliantly successful raid on Cadiz,
Spain, and he seemed to have finally satisfied Elizabeth. He was readmitted to court, continued to serve in
Parliament, held more naval commands, and became governor of the island of Jersey. With Devereux 's
execution for treason (crimes against one's country), Raleigh's place as Elizabeth's favorite seemed secure. But
the queen herself was near death, and Raleigh's enemies lost no time in poisoning the mind of James Stuart
(1566–1625), her successor, against him.
After James I took the throne, Raleigh was dismissed from his posts and forced out of his London house. Soon
after, he was falsely connected to a plot against the king and was once again sentenced to the Tower, where he
attempted to kill himself. Raleigh was sentenced to death, a sentence that would later be dropped. He was
imprisoned for thirteen years.
Raleigh attracted the sympathy and friendship of James's eldest son, Henry, who sought his advice on matters of
shipbuilding and naval defense. Raleigh dedicated his monumental "History of the World," written during this
period of imprisonment, to the prince. Henry protested Raleigh's continued imprisonment but died before he
could effect his release.
Freed early in 1616, Raleigh invested most of his remaining funds in the projected voyage to search for gold
mines in South America. The expedition, which sailed in June of the following year, was a disastrous failure.
No treasure or mines were found, and Raleigh's men violated James's strict instructions to avoid fighting with
Spanish colonists in the area. Still worse, during the battle with the Spaniards, Raleigh's eldest son, Walter, was
killed.
Upon his return Raleigh was arrested once again. James and Sarmiento, the Spanish ambassador, wanted him
tried on a charge of piracy, but since he was already under a sentence of death, a new trial was not possible. His
execution would have to proceed from the charge of treason of 1603. James agreed to this course, and Raleigh
was beheaded on October 29, 1618.
Explorer Fact Sheet
HERNANDO CORTES
Hernando Cortes was born in the village of Medellin in Entremedura, Spain, in 1485. At the age of 14, he left
home to study law at the University of Salamanca and returned home two years later. He wandered the seaports
of Cadiz, Palos, Sanlucar, an d Seville and in 1504 joined an expedition of five ships that sailed for Santo
Domingo in the New World. Cortes wanted to become a conquistador (a conqueror as well as an explorer) for
Spain.
After arriving in Hispaniola, the center for Spanish exploration, Cortes got himself noticed by Diego Velasquez
who had decided to explore and conquer Cuba in 1511. He asked Cortes to join his expedition. The expedition
was successful, but it did not satisfy the Spanish craving for gold. Velasquez had heard about a wealthy Aztec
Empire in Mexico and wanted someone to lead an expedition there. He needed someone that he could trust and
who would remain loyal to him. Cortes was overjoyed that he was asked to be the commander of the expedition
to find the Aztec cities.
Cortes rushed to make preparations for departure, because he feared Velasquez might change his mind and
appoint someone else to lead the expedition. The expedition consisted of 11 ships, 500 soldiers, 13 horses, and
some cannons. His fleet anchored at Trinidad on the south coast of Cuba where more soldiers were hired and
additional horses were taken aboard. After sailing across the straits of Yucatan, they landed on the island of
Cozumel. Here they met a Spanish castaway, Aguilar, who knew the la nguage of the Indians and became the
interpreter for the conquistadores. The expedition sailed around the Yucatan peninsula on March 4, 1519, and
stopped at the mouth of a river in the country of Tabasco. Here they met Indians who would not let them com e
ashore even for water. Cortes and his soldiers got into several tough battles and drove the Indians out of their
fortified town. After many Indians were killed, Cortes, through his interpreter, won the peace and friendship of
the Indians. Cortes stay ed in camp for five days to allow his wounded soldiers to recover and to get their
weapons in order.
The fleet set sail again and anchored next at San Juan de Ulua. They were greeted by Indians who gave them
food and fine gifts made of gold and silver. The interpreter told them that the Indians had been sent by the great
Emperor Montezuma, ruler of the Aztecs.
Cortes was even more determined to conquer the Aztecs after seeing these riches. He also made friends with
Cempoala Indians who fought against the Aztecs. The Cempoalas helped Cortes and his men establish a base on
the shore at a village Cortes nam ed Vera Cruz when he claimed in the name of Spain. It was very important to
have a safe port where Spanish ships could land supplies and reinforcements that Cortes would need to conquer
the Aztec capital city of Tenochtitlan.
Cortes realized that some of his men wanted to return to Cuba. The men did not believe they could walk
through 200 miles of jungle and swamps, climb mountains, avoid thousands of hostile Indians and attack the
Aztec fortress city which was surrounded by water. To keep his men from deserting, Cortes carried out a
desperate and bold scheme. He removed the sails, rigging, compasses, and all other valuables from all but one
ship and burned the others.
Without a way to retreat, on August 16, 1519, the expedition started. In addition to the Spaniards, there were 40
Cempoalan warrior chiefs and 200 Indians to drag the cannon and carry the supplies. The men were accustomed
to the hot climate of the coast, but they suffered immensely from the cold of the mountains, the rain, and the
hail. Although Cortes asked for peace and friendship, and permission to cross their land on the way to Mexico,
the Tlaxcalan Indians refused. Throughout the month of September, Cortes and members of his expedition
fought many battles with the Tlaxcalans. The Spanish weapons and technology, and the boldness of Cortes, kept
his men from being wiped out. Cortes made his last peace offer. He said that if it was refused that every
Tlaxcalan would be killed. His peace offer was accepted. The Tlaxcalans brought food, water, and gifts. On
October 23, 1519, Cortes set out (with an additional 1,000 Tlaxcalan Indians) to conquer Montezuma and the
Aztecs. As Cortes passed t hrough mountain towns and villages, many Indians told of cruel treatment by the
Aztecs. These Indians were very willing to help conquer Montezuma.
Cortes and his expedition were awe struck when they finally saw Tenochtitlan, Montezuma's capital city. The
cities and towns were even more beautiful and contained more riches than the Spanish expected. Cortes arrested
Montezuma and locked him in h is palace. At this time, Cortes was called back to Vera Cruz to deal with an
uprising. When Cortes returned to Tenochtitlan, he found his men fighting with the Aztecs. Montezuma was
stoned and killed by his own people. Many Spaniards were killed or dr owned when they tried to carry sacks of
gold across the causeway to the mainland. A year later, Cortes returned to the Aztec capital city and for two
months fought a bloody battle. On August 13, 1521, Cortes claimed it for Spain.
The King's share of the treasure was sent to Spain and Cortes got his reward. On October 15, 1522, he was
given the title of Captain General and Governor of New Spain; the capital, Tenochtitlan, became Mexico City.
Explorer Fact Sheet
FRANCISCO PIZARRO
Francisco Pizarro was born in Trujillo, Spain, in 1495. He was a farm boy with very little education. Pizarro ran
away from home for adventure. When he arrived in the West Indies, the only possessions he had were his sword
and his cloak. He wanted to become a conquistador. His bold, clever, and ruthless ways caught the attention of
explorers. He was a member of the Ojeda expedition to the Columbian coast in 1509. Also, he sailed with
Balboa's expedition which discovered the Pacific Ocean in 1513. Pizarro settled in Panama.
Rumors were spreading about a treasure much greater than that of the Aztecs in Mexico. The Incas in Peru were
reported to have more gold and silver than one could imagine. These stories motivated Pizarro to organize an
expedition down the west coast of South America to find this wealth. The first expedition for Spain in 1524
turned out to be a failure, but this did not stop Pizarro. He got financial backing for his second expedition from
the mayor of Panama in 1526. He was directed to conquer the Incas, take their wealth, and convert them to
Christianity. After many months of hardships, Pizarro arrived at Tumbes on the gulf of Guayaquil. When
Pizarro and his men went ashore, they were greeted by an Inca ambassador and taken through a town that wou
ld compare with any in Spain. They saw the Temple of the Sun which was gold plated and surrounded by an
artificial garden of trees and shrubs made of gold and silver with fruit and flowers made of precious gems. The
Spaniards were overcome with greed, b ut knew they did not have the resources to conquer the Incas. In 1528,
Pizarro decided to return to Spain and tell the King of his discoveries.
In 1531, Pizarro received funds and a charter of conquest from King Charles V to conquer Peru for its gold.
Pizarro set sail southward from Panama. He had three ships, 200 men, including 27 horsemen. Pizarro had a few
minor battles with the first India ns he encountered. Pizarro was able to take advantage of the civil war which
had weakened the Incas because of internal fighting. His expedition marched through the high mountain passes
of the Andes to the town of Cajamarca where the emperor, Atahualpa, lived. Pizarro boldly made camp in the
large, central square. When the emperor came to see Pizarro, he saw only a Spanish priest carrying a Bible and
an Indian interpreter. Pizarro and his men were concealed behind a wall. The priest told the emperor and his
people that they must surrender to Spain and follow the religion of the Spaniards. The emperor threw the Bible
on the ground. Pizarro and his soldiers attacked at once. It was a brutal battle that lasted about half an hour. The
Spanish horsem en charged right into the square where the Incas were gathered and trampled many of them to
death. The guns, cannons, and steel swords did the rest. Most of the leadership of the Incas was wiped out. Over
4,000 men of the great Inca Empire were dead. The Spaniards put the emperor, Atahualpa, on trial for his life.
Pizarro judged him guilty and sentenced him to be burned at the stake. The emperor pleaded for mercy. Pizarro
agreed on the condition that the emperor be baptized a Christian and promised that no blood would be shed.
Immediately after the emperor was baptized, he was strangled to death in the public square on August 15, 1533.
Pizarro and his brothers continued to control the land of the Incas by treacherous and bloody means. Pizarro
gained great wealth for Spain. Some say that by today's standards it would amount to over $100 million. By
conquering Peru, Pizarro opened the western coast of South America for exploration.
Explorer Fact Sheet
FRANCISCO VASQUEZ de CORONADO
Francisco Vasquez de Coronado was born in 1510 in Salamanca, Spain. His family was wealthy. However,
Coronado was not going to benefit from their wealth; it was promised to his older brother. In 1535, Coronado
sailed to Mexico with Antonio de Mendoza, the Viceroy of Mexico. Later, Coronado became the Governor of
the Province of New Galicia in northern Mexico.
Francisco Coronado, like many other explorers, heard the rumors of the seven cities of gold. The Viceroy of
Mexico, Mendoza, organized a very large expedition to search for the seven cities of gold. He appointed
Coronado to lead the expedition to the n orth of Mexico. At the same time, De Soto was searching for the seven
cities of gold in Florida. both Coronado and De Soto were on conquests for gold and silver for Spain. Coronado
began his expedition in 1540. It consisted of 230 men wearing armor, 6 2 soldiers on foot, and approximately a
thousand Indians as servants and haulers of goods. Also included in the expedition were cattle, mules, and
approximately 1,500 horses. Coronado began his journey at Campostela on the northwest coast of Mexico. Hi s
departure was much like a parade. With pennants flying, drums beating, and trumpets shrilling, Coronado began
his expedition.
Coronado left with high hopes of success. He had been told that the land was level and that food and water
supplies were abundant. The opposite proved true. There were many marches where the trails were difficult and
almost impassable with very little food for the men and animals. Coronado and his men also encountered
dangers such as dealing with rattlesnakes whose bite was dangerous. When Coronado reached the Zuni pueblos,
he made contact with industrious, peaceful Indians. They were described as a higher culture. These Indians
wove cotton cloth and made turquoise jewelry and beautiful pottery. In addition, they were skillful farmers.
However, Coronado found no gold.
Coronado was disappointed and decided to send out exploring parties. They discovered the Hopi villages in
Arizona, and the pueblos of the Pecos, the Grand Canyon, and the Rio Grande. Still no gold was discovered. A
Plains Indian that had been captured told of treasures in Quivira, a great city to the northeast. After spending the
winter near present day Santa Fe, New Mexico, the expedition left in the spring to find Quivira. Coronado and
his entourage meandered through the Texas Panhandle and Oklaho ma where they saw great herds of buffalo.
They crossed into Kansas and found Quivira, a small Wichita Indian village. Again, Coronado found no gold.
After another disappointment, Coronado decided he had had enough. His expedition spent the winter along the
Rio Grande in 1541-42, then returned to Mexico.
Even though Coronado was a conquistador, he was in some ways different from other Spanish explorers. He
was good to his men. Coronado organized ways for them to get food through finding corn and buffalo hunting.
He gave back more to the land than he t ook from it. Many horses were turned loose or escaped during
Coronado's expedition. Descendants of these horses were tamed and used by the Indians. These horses changed
the hunting and fighting styles of the Indians. This had a great impact on the set tlement and history of the West.
Coronado's contact did not result in gold and silver for Spain, but he did contribute to the development of the
American West.
Explorer Fact Sheet
HERNANDO de SOTO
Hernando de Soto was born about 1500 in the mountainous area of Jerez de los Caballeros in central Spain. In
his youth, he saw many shipments of products and goods from the Indies. Gold, sugar, herbs, cotton, hides, and
wood inspired many stories of the possibilities for riches and promise across the Atlantic. At the age of 14, de
Soto sailed for the Isthmus of Panama with the aging governor of Darien, Pedro Arias Davila.
Under the harsh Davila, de Soto earned a reputation as a conquistador known for his stubbornness, bravery, and
boldness. As reward for his raids of Indian land and treasures, he received gold and slaves. De Soto had served
as Lieutenant for Francisco Pizarro during his expedition to conquer the Inca Indians. Since Pizarro was
successful in conquering the Incas of Peru, de Soto shared in the wealth and made a fortune for his work in
Mexico.
Many stories were told by the Indians of vast riches in the areas north and south of Mexico. A tale was told in
Mexico (New Spain) about seven cities to the north where precious jewels might be found in abundance and
gold in such quantities that ordinary tools were made from it. King Charles I of Spain also heard of the reported
wealth waiting to be discovered. As a result, he gave de Soto a grant to lead an expedition to Florida to conquer,
to subdue, the population, and to find more wealth than Cortes in Mexico and Pizarro in Peru.
Hernando de Soto's expedition sailed from Spain with seven ships, about 600 men, 250 horses, and many
bloodhounds. The expedition arrived in Tampa Bay in 1539. They traveled by foot through Florida and across
Georgia pushing through thickets and quagmires. Motivated by the chance of finding gold ahead they pushed
north through the region known today as Tennessee, Alabama, and Mississippi. Hernando de Soto tried a forced
labor policy with the Indians and held some of the chiefs hostage. This technique had worked for Cortes and
Pizarro, but it did not work for de Soto. Like some explorers before him, de Soto met with some luck; he found
a survivor of a shipwreck who could interpret the Indian language. However, the Indians in this area were not
friendly and not willing to give up their land without a fight.
An Indian princess did greet de Soto with food and provided shelter for his men. She gave him ropes of pearls
as gifts. In return, de Soto took her hostage. He was determined to find wealth. However, obstacles continued to
reduce the success of de Soto. His soldiers lost most of their supplies, clothing, and horses. Nevertheless, de
Soto continued to push on. He arrived with about half of his men and a few weary horses at the Mississippi
River. Discovering this mighty river was his greatest achievement. Although de Soto continued to explore for
several months, he never found the wealth that would bring fame to him and Spain. He died of a fever and was
wrapped in skins weighted with sand and dumped into the Mississippi River which he had discovered. The
remainder of de Soto's expedition floated down the river to the sea and returned to Mexico. Even though de
Soto did not realize his dream, he made an important discovery, the Mississippi River.
Explorer Fact Sheet
GIOVANNI DA VERRAZANO
Giovanni Da Verrazano was born in 1485 in the area of Italy known as Tuscany. His family was wealthy and
Verrazano was sent to Florence for his education. He was a good student and had a special interest in
mathematics. He later moved to the port city of Dieppe in order to pursue a career as a navigator. He made
several voyages to countries east of the Mediterranean Sea and gained a reputation as a master mariner.
During this time, Lyons was the center of the French silk industry. A group of Italian bankers and merchants
residing in Lyons hired Verrazano to look for a western sea route to Cathay [China]. A western route would
drastically lower the cost to ship s ilk over a long land route. The bankers formed a syndicate and in March of
1523 large sums of money were spent to outfit the expedition. The bankers won the support of the French king
and Verrazano sailed with a commission from King Francis I to explore the coast of the New Land in search of
a passage to the Orient.
Verrazano sailed with four ships under his command and headed for Madeira. Two ships were lost in a storm
along the way, a third ship returned to France. Verrazano sailed for the New Land in a single caravel named the
Dauphine. The ship was one hundred tons, carried a crew of fifty and provisions to last for eight months. The
only crew member mentioned in his journal was his brother, Girolamo, a map maker. The ship left the
Portuguese islands of Madeira on January 17, 1524, and steered westward.
In March 1524, after sailing for forty-nine days, he sighted a low-lying coast we now know as North Carolina.
Verrazano sailed south for a distance in order to explore the coast but feared running into hostile Spanish ships.
Turning northward again he anchored off shore near Cape Fear, North Carolina. A boat was sent ashore and
here he saw Indians. The Indians were very friendly and welcomed them with gifts of food. The expedition
continued north gathering information to provide Europe with the firs t known description of the coastline of
North America.
Along the way, Verrazano had several contacts with the people living in these regions. At one point, Verrazano
captured a young Indian child to show the King when he returned to France. Verrazano sailed up the coast,
entered New York Bay, and dropped anchor. A small boat was launched to row him up as far as the Narrows,
where he saw many canoes coming to meet him. Verrazano sailed up the coast past present-day Block Island
and anchored at the present Newport, Rhode Island. This time the Indians were not friendly. They would trade
with the ship but would not let the sailors ashore. The Dauphine continued northward along the coast to
Narragansett Bay and up the coast of today's Maine. When the expedition reached the area of Newfoundland
provisions began to run low. Verrazano decided to return to France and steered east.
The ship made a speedy passage and returned to Dieppe by July 8, 1524. Verrazano believed that the coast
between Florida and Newfoundland belonged to a completely new world. He had found a new land which could
be of great value to France. He hoped to return to explore further.
Explorer Fact Sheet
SAMUEL de CHAMPLAIN
Samuel de Champlain was born around 1570 in Brouge, France. Brouge was an important port city and
Champlain's father had been an officer in the French Navy. Champlain himself served as a French naval captain
and also fought as a soldier in the war in Brittany. Later he was given the command of a Spanish ship sailing
from Cadiz to the West Indies. For two years he sailed under the Spanish flag exploring the area along the coast
from Panama to Mexico.
He returned to France at the same time that trading for furs with the New World was becoming very profitable.
By 1600, the businessmen of France were competing with each other for a monopoly of this trade. But Henry
IV, the French king wanted to claim land in the New World and start French settlements there. He ordered that
any company monopolizing the fur trade would also have to start a colony. King Henry IV persuaded
Champlain to join an expedition to explore the land where the furs came from to see if it was suitable for
colonization. Champlain left on his first voyage with two small vessels, hardly larger than fishing boats, to
explore the area of the St. Lawrence River.
Samuel de Champlain made twelve voyages to what is now Canada. On his first trip he followed the St.
Lawrence River as far north as the Lachine Rapids above Montreal. Along the way he met Indians who
discouraged him from trying to proceed further because of rapids and poor conditions extending far up the river.
Champlain turned back, traded with the Indians, loaded his ships with a valuable cargo of furs, and returned to
France.
When Champlain reached France he found that a new nobleman had been given the Canadian fur trading rights
provided that he start a colony and bring 100 settlers every year. Champlain was persuaded to join the
expedition. For the next five years he explored the St. Lawrence country, the area of Nova Scotia and New
England. He charted the coastline and made friends with the Indians. In 1608 Champlain founded Quebec, the
first lasting French settlement in the New World. During this time he made friends and traded with the
Algonquians and other Indian groups in the area. The Algonquians were the enemies of the Iroquois Indians
living in the area of New York State and the land south of the Great Lakes. Champlain was asked to choose
sides and help the Algonquians in their war with the Iroquois. He chose to help the Algonquians for several
reasons. They were his neighbors and he did business with them. Champlain also wanted closer ties so he could
count on aid for his scouts as they travelled to build up the fur trade while searching for a northwest passage.
Champlain and two others accompanied the Indian warriors southward. The war party came across a large fleet
of Iroquois canoes. As the arrows flew, Champlain fired his gun and the terrified Indians fled. The expedition
was important not only because close ties were formed with this group of Indians but also because the journey
allowed Champlain to survey the whole length of the lake south of the St. Lawrence. This body of water was
named Lake Champlain in his honor.
Champlain's time spent in the New World was not always so successful. At times there were skirmishes with
other fur traders over trading rights. In establishing the fort at Quebec, the party fell down with scurvy from the
lack of fresh food. Only eight out of twenty-eight men survived the first winter. In a later raid with the
Algonquians, Champlain was wounded and spent the winter in their care. He spent many years developing the
fur trade and searching for the inland sea which would be the passage to China through the northwest.
The French made many gains in the New World because of Samuel de Champlain. Besides founding Quebec,
he also was the first to name and map Lake Huron. He was able to trace the St. Lawrence River to its source.
Champlain's maps and accounts made this area of the world known to Europe. Champlain served as governor of
New France in 1626. During the difficulties between France and England he was captured and taken prisoner.
He later returned to New France when released and again served as governor. He died there on December 25,
1635.
Explorer Fact Sheet
HENRY HUDSON
Little is known about the life of Henry Hudson before he became an explorer during the period between 1607
and 1611. He and his wife Katherine had three sons, one of whom sailed with him as he searched for a western
route to Asia. Hudson made four voyages in search of a new route to the Orient, three flying the flag of England
and one for the Dutch.
Hudson's first two voyages were financed by the English Muscovy Company. This was a group of English
merchants who traded with Moscow. Hudson was hoping to find a northeast passage to China, Japan and the
East Indies. He believed that a route could be found by heading for the Arctic Ocean. Both voyages resulted in
the Hopewell turning back. Blocked by ice and heavy winds Hudson returned to England and the English
merchants grew discouraged with the venture. The Dutch East India Company heard of Hudson's attempts to
find a northeast passage and agreed to supply him with a ship, crew, and provisions in order to continue the
explorations for a passage to the Orient.
The Half Moon left Holland in 1609 and started northeast. Hudson again found himself blocked by ice north of
Russia. The men, many accustomed to a warmer route, began to grumble and threaten to mutiny. Rather than
return to Holland and face the merchants who paid for the expedition, Hudson reversed his course and crossed
the Atlantic to look for the passage to the Indies through America. The ship reached the coast and sailed to what
is now Chesapeake Bay then turned north. On September 11, 1609, the Half Moon entered the bay now known
as New York Harbor. Hudson became the first European to reach this spot since the visit of Verrazano eightyfive years earlier.
Hudson sailed up the river that is today named for him. This journey was the basis for the Dutch claim to the
area now known as New York. The land was beautiful and well suited for settlement. Along the way he found
the Indians to be very friendly, of ten rowing out to meet him. They brought green tobacco to smoke and beaver
and otter skins to trade for beads, knives, and hatchets. Despite this the crew remained mistrustful. At one point
they set ashore and drove a group out of their village. Later, a group of Indians in canoes attacked a small boat
of sailors as they explored the bay. The farther north Hudson went he realized that this was not the way to the
Pacific. He probably went above where the Mohawk River joins the Hudson before turning b ack.
The Half Moon returned to England rather than Holland, and landed in November 1609. He sent an account of
his voyage to his employers and requested permission to prepare for another voyage. The Dutch merchants
ordered him to return to Holland but England refused to let him leave the country. They did not want further
voyages to benefit Holland. Hudson's fourth trip to sail northwest in search for a passage to the Orient was
funded by English merchants. He left in the ship Discovery, April 1610. During this trip Hudson set out for the
American Arctic and sailed through the Hudson Strait and into Hudson Bay. Hudson was convinced that this
great sea would extend westward to China.
Hudson explored the waters and after several weeks the crew began to protest. They demanded to head for
home but Hudson refused. Winter set in and the ship was stranded. When spring came Hudson wanted to
resume the search for the westward water route but the crew had suffered enough hardship. They mutinied and
took over command of the ship. They set Hudson, his son John, and six supporters adrift in a small boat and left
them to die. They were never seen again. The Discovery sailed for home but several crew members died of
starvation before they reached England. The surviving members were not punished for their crime. They were
the only men who had sailed the sea that was thought to lead to the Indies. They were too valuable to hang.
Explorer Fact Sheet
FERDINAND MAGELLAN
While in the service of Spain, the Portuguese explorer, Ferdinand Magellan, led the first European voyage of
discovery to circumnavigate (travel around) the globe. His voyage provided clear proof that the Earth is round.
Ferdinand Magellan was born in Oporto, Portugal, in 1480. His parents were members of the Portuguese
nobility, and the young Magellan found himself in the service of royalty at an early age. He was only twelve
when he began serving the queen of Portugal as a page, a position of employment for youths in royal courts. As
a young member of Queen Leonora's School of Pages in Lisbon (the Portuguese capital) Magellan was
encouraged to learn subjects that would aid him greatly later, such as cartography (mapmaking), astronomy, and
celestial navigation (learning how to steer a ship based on the positions of the stars).
Magellan joined the Portuguese service to sail with the fleet in 1505. He went to East Africa and later was at the
battle of Diu, in which the Portuguese destroyed the Egyptian fleet's dominance in the Arabian Sea. He went
twice to Malacca, located in present-day Malaysia, and participated in that port's conquest (the act of
conquering) by the Portuguese. It is possible that he also went on a mission to explore the Moluccas (islands in
Indonesia, then called the Spice Islands). Trading in spices brought great wealth to European nations at this
time, and there was much competition among them to claim territories that were rich in spices, especially in
Southeast Asia, called the East Indies. The Moluccas were the original source of some of the world's most
valuable spices at that time, including cloves and nutmeg.
In 1513 Magellan was wounded in a battle in North Africa. But all of his services to Portugal brought him little
favor from the Portuguese king, and in 1517 he went to Seville, Spain, to offer his services to the Spanish court.
Spain and Portugal were both great powers at this time. They were in great competition over the rights to claim
and settle the newly "discovered" regions of the Americas and the East. In 1494 the Treaty of Tordesillas
divided the overseas world of the "discoveries" between the two powers, essentially splitting the globe in half
from pole to pole. Portugal acquired everything from Brazil eastward to the East Indies, while the Spanish
hemisphere (half-globe) of discovery and conquest ran westward from Brazil to an area near the Cape Verde
Islands. The parts of this area that lay furthest east of Spain had not yet been explored by the Spaniards, and
they assumed that some of the Spice Islands might lie within their half of the globe. They were wrong, but
Magellan's scheme was to test that assumption. He decided that the best way to reach these islands was to sail in
a westward
Other explorers had paved the way for Magellan by making key mistakes and discoveries. Christopher
Columbus (1451–1506) had badly underestimated the distance between Europe and the East Indies, sailing
westward from the European coast and "discovering" North America and the Caribbean islands (West Indies).
Vasco Núñez de Balboa's (1475–1517) march across the Panamanian isthmus had revealed the existence of the
Pacific Ocean, which he had claimed for Spain. Thereafter, explorers eagerly sought northern and southern allwater passages across the Americas to reach the spice-rich East. Magellan also sought such a passage.
King Charles V (1500–1558) of Spain approved Magellan's proposal, and on September 20, 1519, Magellan led
a fleet of five ships out into the Atlantic. Unfortunately, the ships—the San Antonio, Trinidad, Concepción,
Victoria, and Santiago—were barely adequate to sail, and the crew were not all firmly loyal to their leader.
With Magellan went his brother-in-law, Duarte Barbosa, and the loyal and able commander of the Santiago,
João Serrão. Arriving at Brazil, the fleet sailed down the South American coast to the San Julián bay in the
region called Patagonia. They stayed there from March to August 1520. During this time an attempted mutiny
was put down, with only the top leaders being punished. Afterwards, however, the Santiago was wrecked, and
its crew had to be taken aboard the other vessels.
Leaving San Julián, the fleet sailed southward. On October 21, 1520, it entered what is now called the Strait of
Magellan (the channel of water between the southern tip of South America and the island of Tierra del Fuego).
The fleet proceeded cautiously, taking over a month to pass through the strait. During this time the master of the
San Antonio deserted and sailed back to Spain, and so only three of the original five ships entered the Pacific on
November 28. A long voyage northward through the Pacific followed, and it was only on March 6, 1521, that
the fleet finally anchored at Guam.
Magellan then headed eastward to Cebu in the Philippines, where, in an effort to gain the favor of a local ruler,
he became involved in a local war and was killed in battle on April 27, 1521. Barbosa and Serrão were killed
soon afterwards. The remaining crew was forced to destroy the Concepción, and the great circumnavigation was
completed by a courageous former mutineer, Juan Sebastián del Cano. Commanding the Victoria, he picked up
a small cargo of spices in the Moluccas, crossed the Indian Ocean, and traveled around the Cape of Good Hope
(at the southern tip of Africa) from the east. He finally reached Seville on September 8, 1522. In the meantime,
the Trinidad had tried to head back across the Pacific to Panama but was finally forced back to the Moluccas.
There its crew was jailed by the Portuguese, and only four men later returned to Spain.
Magellan's project brought little in the way of material gain to Spain. The Portuguese were well established in
the East. Their route to the east, by way of Africa, had proved to be the only practical way of getting by sea to
India and the Spice Islands. Yet despite nearly destroying itself in the process, the Magellan fleet for the first
time revealed in a practical fashion the full extent of the globe. As a scientific effort, it proved to be the greatest
of all the "conquests" undertaken by the overseas adventurers of fifteenth-and sixteenth-century Europe.
Explorer Fact Sheet
JUAN PONCE DE LEÓN
The Spanish conqueror and explorer Juan Ponce de León conquered the island of Puerto Rico and explored the
coastline of Florida, which he claimed for the Spanish crown.
Juan Ponce de León was born in San Servas, Spain sometime in 1460. Although born into a noble family, he
was poor, and like many in similar situations, he sought fame and fortune as a soldier. He received an education
in fighting skills, manners, and religion while serving a knight named Pedro Nunez de Guzman, and later helped
in the ten-year conquest of the Muslim kingdom of Granada in southern Spain.
Afterward, Ponce de León heard stories of Christopher Columbus's (c. 1451–1506) discovery of a new world
and volunteered to go along on a return trip. In September 1493 he was one of twelve hundred men who set out
for the island of Hispaniola (modern Dominican Republic and Haiti). Ponce de León survived disease, bad
weather, and a shortage of food and drink to help colonize the new lands by forcing the Indians into slavery.
Ponce de León spent most of the early 1500s in Hispaniola, establishing farms, distributing land rights, helping
construct buildings to aid in defense, and working to set up an island economy (system of production,
distribution, and use of goods and services). He also married and fathered four children. He was named deputy
governor of Hispaniola by Governor Nicolas de Ovando after helping put down an Indian uprising in the eastern
province of the island in 1504.
The Indians told Ponce de León that he would find gold on a neighboring island to the east, called Boriquien
(Puerto Rico). Four years later he crossed over and conquered the island. During the conquest he shared the
honors with a famous greyhound dog named Bercerillo. It was said that the Indians were more afraid of ten
Spaniards with the dog than one hundred without him. Ponce de León was appointed governor of Puerto Rico
by King Ferdinand of Spain (1452–1516). The island became popular with other settlers because it was well run
by Ponce de León and it had a large number of slaves and many natural resources. Ponce de León was also
noted for his nonviolent treatment of the Indians, which was rare for the time.
Stripped of his title as governor by King Ferdinand in 1512 after a political conflict, Ponce de León obtained
permission from the king to discover and settle the island of Bimini, which was believed to lie somewhere to the
northwest. He was also interested in locating a famous body of water that was said to have the power to restore
youth to the aged. This myth, repeated to Ponce de León by the Indians, was of European origin. According to
the legend, the spring was in the Garden of Eden, which was located somewhere in Asia (the early Spaniards
believed America to be Asia).
In March 1513 Ponce de León sailed from Puerto Rico and a month later anchored near the mouth of the St.
Johns River on the northeast coast of Florida. Impressed with its many beautiful flowers, and having landed on
Easter day, he named the land Florida, from the Spanish Pascua florida, or "flowery Easter." While traveling
southward he encountered the strong current of the Gulf Stream as it poured through a channel. He had
discovered the Bahama Channel, which later became the route of the treasure ships on their return voyage to
Spain. He continued exploring the East Coast and then sailed up the Gulf Coast to Pensacola Bay. During his
return voyage to Puerto Rico he sighted several small islands crowded with tortoises and named the islands the
Tortugas, or "tortoises."
In 1514 Ponce de León returned to Spain where he received another grant, to establish colonies in the "Island of
Florida" at his own expense. In February 1521 the colonizing expedition landed on the Florida coast near
Charlotte Harbor. A fierce attack by Native Americans caused the settlement to be left abandoned. Ponce de
León, wounded in the battle, died a few days after returning to Cuba. He was buried in Puerto Rico; the words
on his gravestone read, "Here rest the bones of a valiant LION [León], mightier in deeds than in name."
Explorer Fact Sheet
MARCO POLO
The traveler and writer Marco Polo left Venice for Cathay (now China) in 1271, spent seventeen years in
Kublai Khan's (1215–1294) empire, and returned to Venice in 1295. His account of his experiences is one of the
most important travel documents ever written.
Born into a noble family of Venetian merchants, Marco Polo began his long experience with Cathay through the
adventures of his father, Niccolo, and his uncle, Maffeo Polo, partners in a trading operation at a time when
Venice was the world leader in foreign commerce. The Polos had left Venice to travel all the way to Peking,
China, and back when Marco was only six years old. During their nine-year absence, Marco was raised by his
mother and other members of his extended family. He became a tough, loyal, observant young man, eager to
please and interested in adventure.
Marco Polo's father and uncle were well received in China by the Mongol prince Kublai Khan in 1266. The
Polos impressed Kublai Khan with their intelligence and their knowledge of the world. For these reasons he
kept them around for several years. In 1269 he sent them to Rome as his messengers with a request that the
pope send one hundred Europeans to share their knowledge with him. Although the pope did not grant the
request, the Polo brothers, in search of further profit and adventure, set out to return to China in 1271. Since his
mother had died recently, Marco Polo was taken along on the trip, marking his debut, or first appearance, as a
world traveler at age seventeen. The return to China, over land and sea, desert and mountain, took slightly more
than three years.
Despite their failure to bring back the one hundred Europeans from Rome, Kublai Khan welcomed the Polos
back and again took them into his service. He became increasingly impressed with Marco Polo, who, like his
father and uncle, demonstrated not only his ability to travel but also his knowledge of the Mongol language and
his remarkable powers of observation.
With the approval of Kublai Khan, the Polos began widespread trading ventures within his empire. While on
these business trips around the empire, Marco Polo demonstrated his quick mind and his ability to relate what
he saw in clear, understandable terms. His reports, which formed the basis of his famous account of his travels,
contained information on local customs, business conditions, and events. It was in these reports that he
displayed his talent as an objective and accurate observer. Kublai Khan read and used these reports to keep
informed of developments within his empire.
All three of the European visitors were kept on as messengers and advisers. The younger Polo was used on
several extended missions that sent him traveling over much of China and even beyond. By his own account he
came near the edge of Tibet and northern Burma. This relationship between the Polos and Kublai Khan lasted
more than sixteen years, during which Marco served as Kublai Khan's personal representative in the city of
Yangchow, China.
Although the Polos enjoyed the profits of their enterprise, they longed to return to Venice to enjoy their wealth.
They were prevented from returning for a time because Kublai Khan was unwilling to release them from his
service. Their chance to return to Europe came in 1292, when they were sent on a mission to Persia and then to
Rome. The assignment represented Kublai Khan's way of releasing them from their obligations to him. In Persia
they were to arrange a marriage between one of Kublai Khan's regional rulers and a Mongol princess. They
were forced to remain in Persia for nearly a year when the man who was supposed to be married died and a new
groom had to be found. From the Persian court, the Venetians continued their journey home, arriving in 1295
after an absence of nearly twenty-five years.
Marco Polo did not return to Asia again. He entered the service of Venice in its war against the rival city-state
of Genoa. In 1298 Marco served as a gentleman-commander of a ship in the Venetian navy. In September 1298
he was captured and imprisoned in Genoa. He was famous for his adventures, and as a result he was treated
with unusual courtesy for a prisoner and released within a year. Little is known of Marco Polo's life after his
return to Venice. He apparently returned to private life and business until his death in 1324.
While imprisoned in Genoa, Marco Polo related the story of his travels to a fellow prisoner named Rusticiano, a
man from Pisa, Italy, who wrote in the romantic style of thirteenth-century literature. A combination of Marco
Polo's gift of observation and the writing style of Rusticiano emerged in the final version of Marco Polo's
travels. The book included Polo's personal remembrances as well as stories related to him by others.
In his book, which was translated into many languages, Polo left a wealth of information. The information
contained in his maps has proved remarkably accurate when tested by modern methods. His observations about
customs and local characteristics have also been proven true by research.
Explorer Fact Sheet
JACQUES MARQUETTE AND LOUIS JOLIET
The expeditions of Marquette and Joliet brought together two explorers with very different backgrounds.
Marquette was born in 1637 in Laon, France. He studied for the priesthood and in 1668 he was sent to America
to be a missionary among the Ottawa Indians. He was one of the many missionaries the French sent to convert
the Indians. Louis Joliet was born in 1645, in Quebec, Canada. He went to Europe to study. He later returned to
Canada and searched for copper. He served as a trader and trapper for a few years and became an expert
cartographer.
During these years the French colony at Quebec struggled. It was always short of money and supplies and
constantly threatened with attack by the Iroquois Indians. By 1665, the French decided to fight for a claim in the
New World. An army was sent to Quebec to fight the Iroquois. Once the Iroquois were forced to sue for peace
New France expanded and prospered. The French claimed Canada and all of the area around the Great Lakes
and south. Their goal was to build an empire that would control the main trade routes and find the waterway to
the west.
From the Indians, Father Marquette had learned of a great river that started in the north and flowed southward
all the way to the sea. The Spanish explorer Hernando De Soto was the first to report its existence. In 1673,
Governor Frontenac commissioned Louis Joliet to explore this river, known as the Mississippi. Father
Marquette served as chaplain of the expedition. Marquette and Joliet set out from Lake Michigan with five
companions and two birch bark canoes.
The expedition traveled down Lake Michigan and up the Fox River. The Indians helped them carry their canoes
over land to the Wisconsin River on which they floated down to its mouth and entered the Mississippi. They
paddled down the great river past the mouths of the Illinois, the Missouri, and the Ohio. Finally they reached the
spot where the Arkansas entered the Mississippi and celebrated at a feast given by the Arkansas Indians. All
along the way friendly Indians had guided them. Marquette and Joliet learned that the Mississippi emptied into
the Gulf of Mexico and that the Spanish had established settlements farther south. They were discouraged from
going further because the Indians to the south were hostile and had been given guns by the Spanish. Rather than
run the risk of falling into Spanish hands, Marquette and Joliet turned back.
The expedition returned to Canada by way of Lake Michigan. Marquette resumed his missionary work but fell
ill shortly after his return and never fully recovered. He died in May 1675. Joliet became a trader in the Hudson
Bay area and later explored the coast of Labrador. He died in Canada in 1700.
Marquette and Joliet completed a voyage that covered 2,500 miles and lasted four months. They became the
first Europeans to descend the river as far south as the Arkansas. When they reached Quebec, they were able to
report that the Mississippi flowed into the Gulf of Mexico and not westward towards the Pacific. Although they
did not find the route to the west they were searching for they did chart the course of the Mississippi. This river
was to become very important to the French fur trade