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I. OVERVIEW OF COMMUNICATION
1. Definition of Communication
Communicate: To exchange information, news, ideas, etc (using voice, write, telephones, radio,
computers-Internet, etc).
It is the process by which a message or information is exchanged between individuals or groups
by means of commonly agreed symbols.
Communication is the transmission of a message from a source to a receiver. Harold Lasswell
(1948) says that a convenient way to describe communication is to answer these questions:
Who?
Says what?
Through which channel?
To whom?
With what effect?
2. Communication process
Components of Communication Process
• Sender
Participants
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Receiver
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Message
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Channel
•
Noise
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Feedback
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Context
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Participants are the people who communicate, assuming the roles of senders and
receivers during communication.
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As senders, participants form messages and attempt to communicate them to others
through channel.
As receivers, they process the messages and behaviors that they receive and react to
them.
Message: Communication takes place through sending and receiving messages, which
include the elements of meaning, symbols and etc.
•
A channel is both route traveled by the message and means of transportation.
•
Noise: Any thing (external-sounds or internal- feelings) that draw people’s attention.
•
Feedback is the response to a message
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•
Feedback indicates to the person sending a message whether and how that message was
heard, seen and understood.
Context is the physical, social, historical, psychological and cultural settings in which
communication occurs.
Physical- location, environmental conditions (temperature, noise level, etc), physical
distance between communicators
Social- existent relationship between and among participants
Historical- background provided by previous communication episodes between the
participants that influence understandings in the current conversation.
Psychological- moods and feelings each person brings to the communication.
Cultural- beliefs, values, attitudes, meanings, religion, etc.
What are the basic elements of the
communications process?
BASIC MODEL OF COMMUNICATION
Over the years a basic model of communications has evolved that represents the various
elements of the communications process. The elements of the model include:
A. Source/Encoding—the sender or source of a communication is the person or organization
who has information to share with another person or group. It should be noted that the source can
be an individual (e.g., salesperson or hired spokesperson) or a nonpersonal entity such as the
corporation or organization itself. The receivers’ perception of the source influences the manner
in which the communication is received, interpreted and responded to.
Encoding is the process of putting together thoughts, ideas and information into a symbolic form
to communicate a message. The sender’s goal is to encode the message in such a manner so as to
ensure that it will be understood by the receiver.
B. Message—the encoding process leads to the development of a message that contains the
information or meaning the source or sender hopes to convey. Messages can take a variety of
forms and may include symbolic forms or signs. To better understand the symbolic meaning that
might be conveyed in a communication, many advertisers have begun focusing attention on
semiotics, which involves the study of the nature of meaning. From a semiotic perspective, every
marketing message has three basic components: an object, a sign or symbol and an interpret ant.
The object is the product that is the focus of the message (e.g. Marlboro cigarettes). The sign is
the sensory imagery that represents the intended meaning of the object (e.g., the Marlboro
cowboy). The interpretant is the meaning derived (e.g., rugged, individualistic, American).
The message must be put into a transmittable form that is appropriate for the channel of
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communication being used. Advertising messages range from simply written words or copy that
will be read or heard as a radio message to the expensive production of elaborate television
commercials with a great deal of visual impact and imagery.
C. Channel—the channel is the method or medium by which the communication travels from
source or sender to receiver. At the broadest level, channels of communication exist as two
types:
• Personal Channels which involve direct interpersonal contact with target individuals or groups.
For example a salesperson serves as a personal channel of communication when delivering a
sales presentation.
• Nonpersonal channels are those which carry a message without involving interpersonal contact
between sender and receiver. These channels are often referred to as the mass media as messages
transmitted through them are sent to many individuals at one time. The two major categories of
nonpersonal channels are print and broadcast media.
D. Receiver/Decoding—the receiver is the person(s) with whom the sender shares thoughts or
information. Receivers are generally viewed as the consumers in the target audience targeted by
the firm’s marketing and promotional program. Decoding is the process of transforming and
interpreting the sender’s message back into thought and is heavily influenced by the receiver’s
frame of reference or field of experience. Effective communication is more likely when common
ground or shared meaning or understanding exists or has been established between the sender
and receiver.
E. Noise—throughout the communications process the message is subject to noise which refers
to factors that can distort or interfere with adequate reception or comprehension. Noise can occur
during the encoding, transmission, or decoding of a message. Noise can also occur because of a
lack of common ground or understanding between the sender and receiver.
F. Response/Feedback—response refers to the reaction the receiver has after seeing, hearing
and/or reading the message. These responses can range from non-observable actions such as
storing information in memory to taking immediate actions such as ordering a product seen in a
direct response ad. Feedback is the part of the receiver’s response that is communicated back to
the sender and takes a variety of forms. Feedback provides the sender with a way of monitoring
how the message is being decoded and received by the target audience.
Shannon's Model of the Communication Process
Shannon's (1948) model of the communication process is, in important ways, the beginning of
the modern field. It provided, for the first time, a general model of the communication process
that could be treated as the common ground of such diverse disciplines as journalism, rhetoric,
linguistics, and speech and hearing sciences.
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Figure 1: Shannon's (1948) Model of the communication process.
Shannon's model, as shown in Figure 1, breaks the process of communication down into eight
discrete components:
1. An information source. Presumably a person who creates a message.
2. The message, which is both sent by the information source and received by the
destination.
3. A transmitter. For Shannon's immediate purpose a telephone instrument that captures an
audio signal, converts it into an electronic signal, and amplifies it for transmission
through the telephone network. Transmission is readily generalized within Shannon's
information theory to encompass a wide range of transmitters. The simplest transmission
system, that associated with face-to-face communication, has at least two layers of
transmission. The first, the mouth (sound) and body (gesture), create and modulate a
signal. The second layer, which might also be described as a channel, is built of the air
(sound) and light (gesture) that enable the transmission of those signals from one person
to another. A television broadcast would obviously include many more layers, with the
addition of cameras and microphones, editing and filtering systems, a national signal
distribution network (often satellite), and a local radio wave broadcast antenna.
4. The signal, which flows through a channel. There may be multiple parallel signals, as is
the case in face-to-face interaction where sound and gesture involve different signal
systems that depend on different channels and modes of transmission. There may be
multiple serial signals, with sound and/or gesture turned into electronic signals, radio
waves, or words and pictures in a book.
5. A carrier or channel, which is represented by the small unlabeled box in the middle of
the model. The most commonly used channels include air, light, electricity, radio waves,
paper, and postal systems. Note that there may be multiple channels associated with the
multiple layers of transmission, as described above.
6. Noise, in the form of secondary signals that obscure or confuse the signal carried. Given
Shannon's focus on telephone transmission, carriers, and reception, it should not be
surprising that noise is restricted to noise that obscures or obliterates some portion of the
signal within the channel. This is a fairly restrictive notion of noise, by current standards,
and a somewhat misleading one. Today we have at least some media which are so noise
free that compressed signals are constructed with an absolutely minimal amount
information and little likelihood of signal loss. In the process, Shannon's solution to
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noise, redundancy, has been largely replaced by a minimally redundant solution: error
detection and correction. Today we use noise more as a metaphor for problems associated
with effective listening.
7. A receiver. In Shannon's conception, the receiving telephone instrument. In face to face
communication a set of ears (sound) and eyes (gesture). In television, several layers of
receiver, including an antenna and a television set.
8. A destination. Presumably a person who consumes and processes the message.
The Basic Process of Communicating-In summary
To achieve precision and effectiveness in communicating, you should understand the basic
process of communication. It has four requirements:
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A message must be conveyed.
The message must be received.
There must be a response.
Each message must be understood.
Let's look at these requirements one at a time.
A Message Must Be Conveyed
That sounds simple enough. You know what your thoughts are, and you know how to translate
them into words. But that's where we lose the simplicity.
Each of us has our own mental dialect. It is the common language of the culture in which we
grow up, modified by our own unique life's experiences. Our life's experiences add color and
shades of meaning to different words.
When you speak, your mental dialect must be translated into the mental dialect of the hearer. So
the words you speak acquire a different color when they pass through the ears of the person who
hears you.
It Depends Upon Where You Are
You can probably think of numerous opportunities for misunderstandings on your job and in
your culture. If you tell your travel agent you want a flight to Portland, be sure to specify Maine
or Oregon. Otherwise, you may end up on the wrong coast. A colleague of mine once flew to
Ohio to keep a speaking engagement in Columbus. Too late, he realized that the group he was to
address was in Columbus, Georgia. If someone in my hometown of High Point, North Carolina
asks me, "How did Carolina do in the big game last night?" I know the reference is to the Tar
Heels of the University of North Carolina. If somebody in Columbia puts the question in those
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precise words, I know that "Carolina" means the Gamecocks of the University of South Carolina.
In most cities, if you ask a newsstand operator for the Sunday Times, you'll be handed a New
York Times. But in St. Petersburg, Florida, or Seattle, Washington, you're likely to get the local
newspaper.
A Message Must Be Received
The second basic requirement of the one-on-one communication process is that the message be
received and understood. Effective communicators know that they have not conveyed their
meaning until they have made sure that the other person has received it exactly as they sent it.
They test, with questions and observations, to make sure that the real meaning they wanted to
convey has passed through the filters and has been received and understood.
There Must Be A Response
The goal of all communication is to obtain the desired response. You want to say something
correctly, and have your hearer understand what you mean by it. But you also want the hearer to
do something in response.
Each Message Must Be Understood
Once a message has been delivered, received and responded to, it's time to take stock of what
each person has communicated. The cycle of communication is complete only when you come
away with a clearer understanding of the person with whom you sought to communicate. You
may not always agree with the other person, and the other person may not always agree with you
-- but it is important that you understand each other
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TYPES OF AUDIENCE
Donald Smith identifies two types of audience
Primary audience_ target audience
Specific audience to whom the communicator intends to give the message.
Secondary audience
Are other individuals or groups who listen to or see the message even though it is not primarily
intended for them.
3. Types of communication
a. Intrapersonal communication
Intrapersonal communication is the process of understanding sharing meaning within the self. It
is the communication that occurs within your own mind. It occurs when you evaluate and
examine the interaction that occurs between yourself and others but it is not limited to such
situations..
 Prioritizing Daily Tasks
Confronting work days with many demands to meet at once can leave you experiencing a kind of
mental paralysis where you don't know which task to tackle first. Mentally prioritizing your
current or daily work tasks is a strategy you can use to improve the way you orient your thoughts
and complete goals. Creating a mental list of tasks beginning with the easiest and leaving the
most complicated for last allows you to accomplish lots of tasks early in the day -- this will give
you a sense of accomplishment. For example, your daily tasks may begin with checking your
email messages, returning phone calls from the previous business day and reviewing your
appointments. The same list may end with adding the finishing touches on an important
presentation.
 Talking Out Loud
Talking to yourself out loud can be an effective form of intrapersonal communication. Turn on a
digital voice recorder while you're working through ideas, prioritizing tasks or brainstorming
solutions to a current problem. Play the recording back to create a dialogue with yourself. This
helps you pick through your own ideas and determine the thoughts that provide you with the best
chance of success. This is also an ideal strategy for recording the ideas you have throughout the
day that might otherwise get lost in the shuffle of your work tasks.
 Solving the Lunch Break
Your brain receives signals from the various parts of your anatomy on a near constant basis.
Many of these signals go unnoticed on a conscious level, but others have the intent of apprising
you of your body's needs. Ignoring these requests can lead to larger problems that can affect your
work day and how you interact with others. For example, if you know being hungry makes you
irritable, make sure to eat when your stomach tells your brain it needs food. Listening to your
body's signals and addressing its needs helps you continue to work at a high level.
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 Try Sitting Still
Sitting still and listening to your thoughts can help you remove the mental clutter that can
prevent you from orienting tasks and solving problems. According to Be Legendary, a
professional team building company, setting a 10-minute timer at your desk or in your office can
give you a structured amount of time to examine your thoughts and focus on reducing anxiety.
This form of intrapersonal communication works to diffuse the tension that can rise from too
many conflicting thoughts. Avoid racing thoughts during this 10-minute "cool down" period.
Focus on a methodical inventory of your current mental state and eliminate all the lines of
thinking not relevant to the task at hand.
b. Interpersonal communication
When you move from intrapersonal communication to interpersonal communication, you move
from communication that occurs within your own mind to communication that involves one or
more other persons.
Dyadic and small-group communication are two subsets of interpersonal communication.
Dyadic communication or two-person communication, includes interviews with an employer or a
teacher; talks with a parent, spouse or child, friends and etc.
Small group communication is the interaction of a small group of people to achieve an
interdependent goal. Small group communication occurs in families, work groups, support
groups, religious groups and study groups. Communication experts agree that two people are a
dyad and more than two people are a small group if they have a common purpose, goal, or a
mission.
c. Public communication
Public communication is the process of generating meaning in a situation where a single source
transmits a message to a number of receivers who give nonverbal and sometimes, questions and
answer feedback. In public communication the source adapt the message to the audience in an
attempt to achieve maximum understanding.
d. Mass communication
Or communication mediated between a source and a large number of unseen receivers, always
has some transmission system (mediator) between the sender and the receiver. When you watch
your favorite TV show, the signals are going from a broadcast studio to a satellite or a cable
system and then from the system to your TV set: the mediator is the channel, the method of
distribution.
4. Verbal and non verbal communication
a. Verbal communication
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Verbal communication is a communication that involves words. Verbal communication uses
language to communicate. Language must be learned.
Language and meaning
We select the correct word and people will interpret our meaning correctly.
We are not born knowing a language. Rather, each generation within a language community
learns the language one more. We learn much of our language early in life from our families;
much more we learn in school. But we do not all learn to use the same words in same way.
b. Nonverbal communication
Nonverbal communication appears to mean communication without words.
Forms of nonverbal communication
TYPES OF NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION
Major Nonverbal Behaviors
Different types of nonverbal communication include facial expressions, gestures and posture.
According to experts, a substantial portion of our communication is nonverbal. Every day, we
respond to thousands on nonverbal cues and behaviors including postures, facial expression, eye
gaze, gestures, and tone of voice. From our handshakes to our hairstyles, nonverbal details reveal
who we are and impact how we relate to other people.
Scientific research on nonverbal communication and behavior began with the 1872 publication
of Charles Darwin's The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals. Since that time, there
has been an abundance of research on the types, effects and expressions of unspoken
communication and behavior. While these signals are often so subtle that we are not consciously
aware of them, research has identified several different types of nonverbal communication.
In many cases, we communicate information in nonverbal ways using groups of behaviors. For
example, we might combine a frown with crossed arms and unblinking eye gaze to indicate
disapproval.
1. Facial Expression
Facial expressions are responsible for a huge proportion of nonverbal communication. Consider
how much information can be conveyed with a smile or a frown. While nonverbal
communication and behavior can vary dramatically between cultures, the facial expressions for
happiness, sadness, anger and fear are similar throughout the world.
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2. Gestures
Deliberate movements and signals are an important way to communicate meaning without
words. Common gestures include waving, pointing, and using fingers to indicate numeric
amounts. Other gestures are arbitrary and related to culture.
3. Paralinguistics
Paralinguistics refers to vocal communication that is separate from actual language. This
includes factors such as tone of voice, loudness, inflection and pitch. Consider the powerful
effect that tone of voice can have on the meaning of a sentence. When said in a strong tone of
voice, listeners might interpret approval and enthusiasm. The same words said in a hesitant tone
of voice might convey disapproval and a lack of interest.
4. Body Language and Posture
Posture and movement can also convey a great deal on information. Research on body language
has grown significantly since the 1970's, but popular media have focused on the overinterpretation of defensive postures, arm-crossing, and leg-crossing, especially after the
publication of Julius Fast's book Body Language. While these nonverbal behaviors can indicate
feelings and attitudes, research suggests that body language is far more subtle and less definitive
that previously believed.
5. Proxemics
People often refer to their need for "personal space," which is also an important type of
nonverbal communication. The amount of distance we need and the amount of space we perceive
as belonging to us is influenced by a number of factors including social norms, situational
factors, personality characteristics and level of familiarity. For example, the amount of personal
space needed when having a casual conversation with another person usually varies between 18
inches to four feet. On the other hand, the personal distance needed when speaking to a crowd of
people is around 10 to 12 feet.
6. Eye Gaze
Looking, staring and blinking can also be important nonverbal behaviors. When people
encounter people or things that they like, the rate of blinking increases and pupils dilate. Looking
at another person can indicate a range of emotions, including hostility, interest and attraction.
7. Haptics
Communicating through touch is another important nonverbal behavior. There has been a
substantial amount of research on the importance of touch in infancy and early childhood. Harry
Harlow's classic monkey study demonstrated how the deprivation of touch and contact impedes
development. Baby monkeys raised by wire mothers experienced permanent deficits in behavior
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and social interaction. Touch can be used to communicate affection, familiarity, sympathy and
other emotions.
8. Appearance
Our choice of color, clothing, hairstyles and other factors affecting appearance are also
considered a means of nonverbal communication. Research on color psychology has
demonstrated that different colors can evoke different moods. Appearance can also alter
physiological reactions, judgments and interpretations. Just think of all the subtle judgements
you quickly make about someone based on his or her appearance. These first impressions are
important, which is why experts suggest that job seekers dress appropriately for interviews with
potential employers.
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PRINCIPLES OF COMMUNICATION
Introduction
Interpersonal communication is the foundation of human interaction. Its importance for
innovation and change can hardly be overemphasized. In this section, communication from
different viewpoints including listening and speaking is ex.
Objectives
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To introduce communication and to demonstrate the importance of communication in a
variety of contexts including that of the manager of innovation and change.
To evaluate and discuss the characteristics of good communication and how to improve
our communication.
Communication is a two-way process of giving and receiving information through any number
of channels. Whether one is speaking informally to a colleague, addressing a conference or
meeting, writing a newsletter article or formal report, the following basic principles apply:
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Know your audience.
Know your purpose.
Know your topic.
Anticipate objections.
Present a rounded picture.
Achieve credibility with your audience.
Follow through on what you say.
Communicate a little at a time.
Present information in several ways.
Develop a practical, useful way to get feedback.
Use multiple communication techniques.
Communication is complex. When listening to or reading someone else's message, we often
filter what's being said through a screen of our own opinions. One of the major barriers to
communication is our own ideas and opinions.
There's an old communications game, telegraph, that's played in a circle. A message is
whispered around from person to person. What the exercise usually proves is how profoundly
the message changes as it passes through the distortion of each person's inner "filter."
Environmental factors
Communication can be influenced by environmental factors that have nothing to do with the
content of the message. Some of these factors are:
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the nature of the room, how warm it is, smoke, comfort of the chair, etc
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outside distractions, what is going on in the area.
the reputation/credibility of the speaker/writer.
the appearance, style or authority of the speaker.
listener's education, knowledge of the topic, etc.
the language, page layout, design of the message.
People remember:
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10% of what they read
20% of what they hear
30% of what they see
40% of what they hear and see
Communication with Decision Makers
Innovation and change often depends upon persuading potential users of the benefits of an
innovation.
To deal persuasively with decision makers, it is necessary to know and understand their interests
and opinions. The following questions are helpful in organizing technology transfer efforts:
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Who are the key people to persuade?
Who will make the decisions about innovation and change?
What are these decision makers' past experiences with innovation and change?
What are the decision makers' current attitudes toward innovation and change? Are they
neutral, friendly, hostile or apathetic?
What is the most appropriate way to approach the decision maker?
What are the work styles of the decision makers? Are they highly formal people who
want everything in writing and all appointments scheduled in advance? Or are they more
flexible, responding favorably to personal telephone calls and informal meetings?
What networks or groups is the decision maker a part of?
What programs or services will the new innovation improve?
What programs or services will the new innovation cause problems with?
How will the innovation or change benefit the decision maker?
Principles of Effective Persuasion
Whether making a formal presentation at a meeting or writing a report or fact sheet, the
following principles hold.
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Do not oversell or overstate your case. Make effective use of understatement.
Outline the topic you are trying to cover into two parts. The first part should give broad
background information, while the second part provides a detailed summary.
Persuasion depends on clarity and simplicity. Avoid the use of jargon and buzz words.
Be prepared to back up claims or facts immediately.
Incorporate major anticipated objections into your program or presentation.
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Address all relevant aspects of a topic, especially those that may affect the functioning of
an organization.
Use graphics and audiovisuals appropriately.
Consider ways to get meaningful input from people. Find out what they think about the
innovation or change.
Selling New Ideas
Creating Isn't Selling
Often the creators of an innovation feel that convincing others of the idea's value is somehow
superfluous to their activities. To them, conceiving the idea is enough. This combines with their
inner conviction that their idea will "sell itself." Change agents provide a link between creators
of new techniques and users.
Ideas Need Selling
Someone must recognize when an idea is good. It is important that when an idea is good it is
sold to those who can act on it--those who have the power to evaluate and adopt
it. Understanding users is an important activity for any change agent. People must be convinced
that a particular idea or innovation has enough merit to warrant adoption.
Selling Ideas Takes Effort
Selling innovations requires preparation, initiative, patience, and resourcefulness. It may take
more effort than originating the idea. In an age of technical complexity and information
overload, new ideas seldom stand out. Information on new ideas must be targeted to the
appropriate users and relate to their needs and motivations.
Once is Not Enough
A new idea has to be suggested many times before it will "catch on." Initial failures at
promoting a new idea are to be expected, so don't get discouraged if you don't get the results you
want the first time. Some ideas take years to catch on. However, first exposures are crucial to
future prospects. Do it right the first time
Feedback (Listening)
Getting and giving feedback is one of the most crucial parts of good communication. Like any
other activity, there are specific skills that can enhance feedback. Listening is a key part of
getting feedback:
Listen to the Complete Message. Be patient. This is especially important when listening to a
topic that provokes strong opinions or radically different points-of-view. In these situations, it's
important not to prejudge the incoming message. Learn not to get too excited about a
communication until you are certain of the message.
Work at Listening Skills. Listening is hard work. Good listeners demonstrate interest and
alertness. They indicate through their eye contact, posture and facial expression that the
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occasion and the speaker's efforts are a matter of concern to them. Most good listeners provide
speakers with clear and unambiguous feedback.
Judge the Content, Not the Form of the Message. Such things as the speaker's mode of dress,
quality of voice, delivery mannerisms and physical characteristics are often used as excuses for
not listening. Direct your attention to the message--what is being said--and away from the
distracting elements.
Weigh Emotionally Charged Language. Emotionally charged language often stands in the
way of effective listening. Filter out "red flag" words (like "liberal" and "conservative," for
instance) and the emotions they call up. Specific suggestions for dealing with emotionally
charged words include
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Take time to identify those words that affect you emotionally.
Attempt to analyze why the words affect you the way they do.
Work at trying to reduce the impact of these words on you.
Eliminate Distractions. Physical distractions and complications seriously impair
listening. These distractions may take many forms: loud noises, stuffy rooms, overcrowded
conditions, uncomfortable temperature, bad lighting, etc. Good listeners speak up if the room is
too warm, too noisy, or too dark. There are also internal distractions: worries about deadlines or
problems of any type may make listening difficult. If you're distracted, make an effort to clear
your head. If you can't manage it, arrange to communicate at some other time.
Think Efficiently and Critically. On the average, we speak at a rate of 100 to 200 words per
minute. However, we think at a much faster rate, anywhere from 400 to 600 words per
minute. What do we do with this excess thinking time while listening to someone speak? One
technique is to apply this spare time to analyzing what is being said. They critically review the
material by asking the following kinds of questions:
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What is being said to support the speaker's point of view? (Evidence)
What assumptions are being made by the speaker and the listener? (Assumptions)
How does this information affect me? (Effect)
Can this material be organized more efficiently? (Structure)
Are there examples that would better illustrate what is being said? (Example)
What are the main points of the message? (Summary)
Sending Messages
Messages should be clear and accurate, and sent in a way that encourages retention, not rejection.
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Use Verbal Feedback Even If Nonverbal Is Positive And Frequent. Everyone needs
reassurance that they are reading nonverbal communication correctly, whether a smile
means "You're doing great," "You're doing better than most beginners," or "You'll catch
on eventually."
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Focus Feedback On Behavior Rather Than On Personality. It's better to comment on
specific behavior than to characterize a pattern of behavior. For example, instead of
calling a colleague inefficient, specify your complaint: "You don't return phone calls;
this causes problems both in and outside your office."
Focus Feedback On Description Rather Than Judgment. Description tells what
happened. Judgment evaluates what happened. For example, in evaluating a report don't
say, "This is a lousy report!!" Instead, try: "The report doesn't focus on the information
that I think needs emphasis," or "This report seems to have a lot of grammatical and
spelling mistakes."
Make Feedback Specific Rather Than General. If feedback is specific, the receiver
knows what activity to continue or change. When feedback is general, the receiver
doesn't know what to do differently. For example, in an office situation, instead of
saying "These folders are not arranged correctly," it's better feedback to say, "These
should be arranged chronologically instead of alphabetically."
In Giving Feedback, Consider the Needs and Abilities of the Receiver. Give the
amount of information the receiver can use and focus feedback on activities the receiver
has control over. It's fruitless to criticize the level of activity, if the decision to grant the
necessary monies for materials, personnel or technology is made at a different level.
Check to See if the Receiver Heard What You Meant to Say. If the information is
important enough to send, make sure the person understands it. One way of doing this is
to say, "I'm wondering if I said that clearly enough. What did you understand me to
say?" or "This is what I hear you saying. Is that right?"
Selecting the Best Communication Method
In communicating with decision makers, use the most appropriate communications method. One
way to do this is to ask yourself the following questions.
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What is the purpose of your message? Do you plan to tell them something
new? Inform? Do you plan to change their view? Persuade?
What facts must be presented to achieve your desired effect?
What action, if any, do you expect decision makers to take?
What general ideas, opinions and conclusions must be stressed?
Are you thoroughly familiar with all the important information on the innovation?
What resources and constraints affect adoption of the innovation? How much time is
available? How much money is available
Which method, or combination of methods, will work most effectively for this
situation? Personal contact--requires scheduling, time and interpersonal skills.
Telephone contact--requires good verbal skills and an awareness of voice tones as nonverbal
communication.
Letter--requires writing skills.
e-mail�informal, needs to be short and to the point, but not get lost in clutter. May require
frequent follow-up.
News release--requires writing skills and cooperation of the media and time.
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ORAL COMMUNICATION
Speaking to Communicate
Spoken communication occurs in many different settings during the course of successful
innovation and change. These may be divided into three main types:
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The formal and informal networks in which peers exchange information, such as
professional associations, work units, work teams, etc.
The activities of change agents, opinion leaders, etc.
The contacts established at team meetings, conferences, training courses, etc.
Whether to use oral communication is a decision we all make frequently in the course of a
workday. The change agent must be able to identify those situations in which oral
communication is the most appropriate one to use. Don Kirkpatrick suggests the -following
guidelines for making such decisions.
Use Oral Communication When:
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The receiver is not particularly interested in receiving the message. Oral communication
provides more opportunity for getting and keeping interest and attention.
It is important to get feedback. It's easier to get feedback by observing facial expressions
(and other nonverbal behavior) and asking questions.
Emotions are high. Oral communication provides more opportunity for both the sender
and the receiver to let off steam, cool down, and create a suitable climate for
understanding.
The receiver is too busy or preoccupied to read. Oral communication provides more
opportunity to get attention.
The sender wants to persuade or convince. Oral communication provides more
flexibility, opportunity for emphasis, chance to listen, and opportunity to remove
resistance and change attitudes.
When discussion is needed. A complicated subject frequently requires discussion to be
sure of understanding.
When criticism of the receiver is involved. Oral communication provides more
opportunity to accomplish this without arousing resentment. Also, oral communication is
less threatening because it isn't formalized in writing.
When the receiver prefers one-to-one contact.
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Presentation Styles
There are different styles of making a presentation and different people will use the approach
that suits them.
Good Old Boy: This is usually an experienced person who is the peer of most of the audience.
Generally, there is a lot of good information but it may be poorly organized or poorly delivered.
The Entertainer: This person relies on jokes and stories to get their point across. Good visual
aids could be an important feature of the presentation. Sometimes there is too much emphasis on
satisfying the audience that little information is actually transferred.
The Academic: This person tends to be very precise and deliberate in presenting information.
There is considerable content and it usually is well organized. Unfortunately. it can also be
boring and irrelevant and not relate well to the audience.
The Reader: This person decides to read his material word for word. The material is often not
especially prepared for an oral presentation and can be overly technical, boring and hard to
understand. All topics are covered and what is said is precise and accurate.
The Snail: This person is nervous about the presentation and goes into a shell. Like a snail, this
person also moves slowly and the presentation seems to last forever. What is best? You have to
have a style you are comfortable with. Ideally, you have the rapport of the good old boy, the
organization and content of the academic, the ability to get and maintain interest of the
entertainer, and the precision of the reader. If you do this you will avoid the slow pace of the
snail and effectively present information to your listeners.
The Gadgeteer: This person uses every gimmick and technique in his or her presentation and
visual aids. It can be overdone with the message getting lost among the bells and whistles.
Components of an Effective Oral Report
Introduction Capture the attention of the group right from the start.
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Give the necessary explanation of the background from which the problem derived.
Clearly state and explain the problem.
Clearly state your objectives.
Indicate the method(s) used to solve the problem.
Suggest the order in which you will provide information.
Organization
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Provide sufficient introductory information.
Use transitions from one main part to the next and between points of the speech.
Use summary statements and restatements.
Make the main ideas of the report clearly distinguishable from one another.
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Content
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Have adequate supporting data to substantiate what you say.
Avoid using extraneous material.
Present supporting data clearly--in terms of the ideas or concepts you are trying to
communicate.
Were the methods of the investigation clearly presented?
Visual Aid Supports
Use clear drawings, charts, diagrams or other aids to make explanations vivid and
understandable.
Make visual aids fit naturally into the presentation.
Be completely familiar with each visual used.
Don't clutter your report with too many visual aids.
Conclusion
Conclude your report with finality in terms of one or more of the following:
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the conclusions reached
the problem solved
the results obtained
the value of such findings to the county
recommendations offered
Question Period
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Give evidence of intelligent listening in interpreting the questions.
Organize answers in terms of a summary statement, explanation, and supporting example.
Show flexibility in adapting or improvising visual aids in answering questions.
Delivery
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Be natural, "communicative" in your delivery.
Use frequent eye contact to maintain rapport with the audience.
Vary your delivery with appropriate movements and gestures.
Speak distinctly.
Display confidence and authority.
Express enthusiasm for your ideas.
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VISUAL COMMUNICATION
There's an old saying that "a picture is worth a thousand words." Life would indeed be difficult
without paintings, photographs, diagrams, charts, drawings, and graphic symbols. These are
some of the reasons why SHOWING is such an important form of communication.
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Most people understand things better when they have seen how they work.
Involved, complex ideas can be presented clearly and quickly using visual aids.
People retain information longer when it is presented to them visually.
Visuals can be used to communicate to a wide range of people with differing
backgrounds.
Visuals are useful when trying to condense information into a short time period.
Visual aids--used imaginatively and appropriately--will help your audience remember more.
Consider the following:
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People think in terms of images, not words, so visuals help them retain and recall
technical information.
Visuals attract and hold the attention of observers.
Visuals simplify technical information.
Visuals may be useful in presenting technical information to a nontechnical audience.
Questions to Ask about Visual Aids:
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Is my objective clear?
What are my key points? Do they deserve the emphasis that a visual aid gives?
What visual aid or aids have I planned to use?
Will the visual aid clarify my spoken words? Will it support my spoken words rather
than replace them?
Is each visual aid simple, orderly and consistent? Is it free from incompatible and
complicating ideas, symbols, art techniques and typefaces? Can my audience quickly and
easily grasp what they see or must it be read to them? Avoid making it a reading session.
Is it symbolic or pictorial? Which treatment is best for my subject? Which treatment is
best from the standpoint of my audience?
Is my visual direct and to the point? Is the art functional or ornate? Is it really one visual
aid or several? If my subject is complex, will it be presented in easily comprehensible
units? (Drop-ons or overlays) Was my artwork designed just for this presentation?
Is my visual aid realistic? Does it give all the pertinent facts? Have the facts been
distorted?
Is my visual aid as effective as it can be made? Have I used all the available techniques
to make it so?
Did I put enough effort into the planning of the visual aid? Have I sought criticism from
others?
Will it achieve my objectives? Will my audience understand, appreciate and believe
it? If my presentation calls for some action by the audience, will it stimulate them to do
so willingly?
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Have I overlooked anything in the use of the visual aid? Have I tested the visual
aid? Have I planned one or more rehearsals; if not, why? Will my visual aid material be
visible to the entire audience?
Visual Aid Checklist
Slides
( ) Does the projector work properly? Bulb, lenses, change mechanism, fan.
( ) Does each slide present a simple, clear message?
( ) Are the slides arranged and numbered consistently and consecutively?
( ) Are the slides clean and mounted properly?
( ) Will the audience be able to see slide details in the location I plan to use?
( ) Does the slide tray have a title slide at the beginning and a blind slide at the end to avoid
blinding the audience with light?
Power Point or Transparencies
( ) Is the lettering large enough to be seen by the audience?
( ) Is the projector placed so that the audience has an unobstructed view?
( ) Is the projector and slide color scheme adequate for the lighting of the room being used?
( ) Does the projected image fit the screen?
( ) Are my slides in proper order?
( ) Does each present a clear message?
( ) Is the projector compatible with the computer being used?
Video Tape
( ) Do you have the correct machine for the tape you plan to show (Beta or VHS)?
( ) Is the equipment in proper working order?
( ) Is the tape set to start at the proper place and does it "track" properly?
( ) Will the WHOLE audience be able to see the presentation?
( ) Is the sound level on the monitor(s) set at the proper level?
The Location
( ) Does the room match the size of the audience?
( ) Is the location accessible to the physically disabled?
( ) Can the lighting be controlled for showing slides and transparencies? If so, is a reading
light available?
( ) Is the location equipped with a projector cart or table?
( ) Are electrical outlets conveniently located--do I need extension cords?
( ) Is the room equipped with an adequate screen?
( ) If using video equipment, can monitors be set up at appropriate locations?
( ) Does the room have a speakers table or podium?
( ) Will the location be available prior to your meeting so you can set up and test your
equipment?
( ) Is the room equipped with a newsprint easel or chalkboard?
( ) Does the room have chairs and tables or desks? Can they be rearranged if needed?
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( ) Is the main entrance separated from the speaker area so that late arrivals will not disrupt
your presentation?
Always check out the room and equipment in advance to see that it works properly! Never
assume that it will work without trying it first. As a general rule, the more complicated the
technolgy for an oral presentation, the more likely it will fail
Checklist for Tables and Charts
( ) Be ruthless with numbers: use the fewest possible that will still convey the point of the
visual. Do not exceed twenty numbers or a single slide.
( ) Combine numbers into larger sums wherever possible; eliminate any number that does not
contribute significantly to your message.
( ) Consider using a chart (pie, bar, etc.) for presenting some information, especially if you
want to draw comparisons between two or more items.
( ) When preparing charts use colors or patterns with a lot of contrast.
( ) Split information into two or three smaller tables rather than using one huge table. Use no
more than three or four columns per table.
( ) Have a short, yet descriptive, title that states the point of the visual. Put it at the
top. Include a date at the bottom.
( ) Label columns clearly and at the top. Show the units (dollars or tons, for example). On the
left, label the statistics being compared.
( ) Avoid footnotes and symbols that may not be generally understood by your audience.
( ) Use light horizontal lines if they improve readability.
( ) Be consistent. Do not mix pounds and tons, years and months, gross and net.
( ) Avoid decimal points whenever possible. Use round numbers for tables and graphs.
( ) Highlight the most important numbers with boxes, underlining, or color.
( ) If arithmetic operations are not obvious, state them: (less), or "Less Depreciation Expense."
( ) Eliminate zeros by expressing numbers in thousands or millions, if possible.
( ) Show negative numbers in parentheses, not with minus signs.
WRITTEN COMMUNICATION
Written materials often bear the greatest burden for the communication of new ideas and
procedures. Effective writing is the product of long hours of preparation, revision and
organization. One book that follows its own rules is Strunk and White's Elements of Style, a
short book which argues persuasively for clarity, accuracy, and brevity in the use of English. Its
entire philosophy is contained in one paragraph:
�Vigorous writing is concise. A sentence should contain no unnecessary words, a paragraph no
unnecessary sentences, for the same reasons that a drawing should have no unnecessary lines and
a machine no unnecessary parts. This requires not that the writer make all his sentences short, or
that he avoid all detail and treat his subjects only in outline, but that EVERY WORD TELL.�
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Clear, vigorous writing is a product of clear, vigorous thinking. Clarity is born of discipline and
imagination. Kirkpatrick gives the following guidelines for using written communication:
Use Written Communication When:
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The sender wants a record for future references.
The receiver will be referring to it later.
The message is complex and requires study by the receiver.
The message includes a step by step procedure.
Oral communication is not possible because people are not in the same place at
the same time.
There are many receivers. Caution: the receivers must be interested in the subject and
will put forth the time and effort to read and understand.
It is cheaper. Caution: the same as above.
A copy of the message should go to another person.
The receiver prefers written.
Advantages of Written Materials
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Highly technical topics can be presented using words and diagrams.
Written material provides a permanent record that can be referred to from time to time or
passed on to others.
Written material can be duplicated in large quantities or distributed on the Internet
relatively inexpensively.
It is fairly easy to distribute written material to many people, but this practice is getting
increasingly expensive and its effectiveness questionable.
Written material is preferred when it is desirable to get the same information to a group
of people.
Written records and reports are sometimes useful in legal matters.
Written material may be useful for documenting the success or progress of some project
or activity.
Disadvantages of Written Material
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People seldom take the time and effort to read technical materials.
The preparation of written documents is time-consuming.
Once prepared in large quantities, printed documents are difficult to change.
Written material provides little feedback for the sender.
Technical documents are often too long and complex for the majority of readers.
A portion of the population may not be able to read written material.
Too much reliance on written material as a communication method may obscure the true
needs of potential users.
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Name 10 barriers of effective
communications Explain each?
1). NOISE - When a person is communicating to another and someone or something makes
noise , then the communication process fails.
2.) PHYSICAL LOCATION - When teams are spread across the world and diverse teams are
created.
3.) POOR EQUIPMENT - Not having the right IT infrastructure, slow computers, poor quality
audio teleconference systems making it difficult to hear what is being said;
4.) LANGUAGE - Speaking in different languages, or where a language is not your first
language. This also applies to every industry that has its own acromyns and meanings for their
equipment, tools and techniques they use;
5.) CULTURE - Speaking the same language but words having different meaning in different
countries, e.g UK English and USA English have different words for rubber/eraser;
6.) ORGANISATIONAL - inappropriate chains of command and reporting structures in business
organizations;
7.) ATTITUDINAL - Dissatisfaction, the dislike of change, of management or the environment;
8.) OUTDATED INFORMATION - People using different document versions, and not speaking
off the same song sheet;
9.) PERCEPTION - One message has two or more different meanings when spoken or put into
an email. Different levels of education and experience can also be a communications’ barrier;
10.) PERSONALITY - Personal likes and dislikes, and people having selective hearing on
boring subjects or boring speakers.
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Others:
Barriers to effective communication
Recognizing
barriers to effective communication is a first step in improving
communication style. Do you recognize these barriers from your own personal and
professional experience?
Encoding Barriers. The process of selecting and organizing symbols to represent a
message requires skill and knowledge. Obstacles listed below can interfere with an
effective message.
Lack of Sensitivity to Receiver. A breakdown in communication may result when
a message is not adapted to its receiver. Recognizing the receiver’s needs, status,
knowledge of the subject, and language skills assists the sender in preparing a
successful message. If a customer is angry, for example, an effective response may be
just to listen to the person vent for awhile.
1.
Lack of Basic Communication Skills. The receiver is less likely to understand the
message if the sender has trouble choosing the precise words needed and arranging
those words in a grammatically-correct sentence.
2.
Insufficient Knowledge of the Subject. If the sender lacks specific information
about something, the receiver will likely receive an unclear or mixed message. Have
you shopped for an item such as a computer, and experienced how some salespeople
can explain complicated terms and ideas in a simple way? Others cannot.
3.
Information Overload. If you receive a message with too much information, you
may tend to put up a barrier because the amount of information is coming so fast that
you may have difficulty comfortably interpreting that information. If you are selling
an item with twenty-five terrific features, pick two or three important features to
emphasize instead of overwhelming your receiver (ho-hum) with an information
4.
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avalanche.
Emotional Interference. An emotional individual may not be able to communicate
well. If someone is angry, hostile, resentful, joyful, or fearful, that person may be too
preoccupied with emotions to receive the intended message. If you don’t like
someone, for example, you may have trouble “hearing” them.
5.
Transmitting Barriers: Things that get in the way of message transmission are
sometimes called “noise.” Communication may be difficult because of noise and
some of these problems:
Physical Distractions. A bad cellular phone line or a noisy restaurant can destroy
communication. If an E-mail message or letter is not formatted properly, or if it
contains grammatical and spelling errors, the receiver may not be able to concentrate
on the message because the physical appearance of the letter or E-mail is sloppy and
unprofessional.
1.
Conflicting Messages. Messages that cause a conflict in perception for the receiver
may result in incomplete communication. For example, if a person constantly uses
jargon or slang to communicate with someone from another country who has never
heard such expressions, mixed messages are sure to result. Another example of
conflicting messages might be if a supervisor requests a report immediately without
giving the report writer enough time to gather the proper information. Does the report
writer emphasize speed in writing the report, or accuracy in gathering the data?
2.
Channel Barriers. If the sender chooses an inappropriate channel of
communication, communication may cease. Detailed instructions presented over the
telephone, for example, may be frustrating for both communicators. If you are on a
computer technical support help line discussing a problem, it would be helpful for you
to be sitting in front of a computer, as opposed to taking notes from the support staff
and then returning to your computer station.
3.
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