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Ancient Rome
No one knows for sure when Rome was first built.
But somewhere around 800 BC legend tells of two
brothers abandoned by their mother to die in the
wilderness; Remus and Romulus. However, they
were found and nursed by a she-wolf. Raised in
the wild the brothers became vicious and selfish.
When they were grown they returned to the place
their mother left them and founded a city. It was
decided that the city would need a leader and the
brothers could not decide who it should be. They
turned to the prophesiers and soothsayers for an
answer. When it came back that Romulus was to
be the new King, Remus asked him to step down
and let Remus be king. Romulus refused and
brotherly love quickly gave way to ruthless ambition. The brothers drew their swords and held
no mercy. Romulus struck his brother down and took for himself the crown of king of Rome.
The small city eventually came under the
ownership of a people called Etruscans.
The Etruscans had no written language
that we know of but we do know they are
the ones who taught the Romans how to
build roads and irrigation systems and
impressive buildings. For centuries the
Etruscans ruled over the Romans until the
reign of a particularly cruel Etruscan king. This king put his corrupt family members in positions
of power and turned a blind eye when they stole from and abused the people of the city. One
night a nephew of the King was prowling the streets looking for victims to bully when he
looked in the window a respected Roman citizen and saw his wife sitting alone. The nephew
and his friends broke into the house and raped the wife. The boys ran off when their fun was
over but the woman was so shamed by what had happened to her that she took her own life
to spare her husband and her family the disgrace.
The next day Romans took
to the streets in all out riots
and killed the nephew and
King and chased the
Etruscans out of their city.
From that day forth, the
people vowed that no
Roman would ever be ruled
by a King. The Romans set
up a new form of
government called a
Republic. The Republic
would be run by two
Houses. One house would
represent the wealthy nobles; the Senate. The other house would represent the people; the
Tribunal. They would elect a man every year 2 leaders from the Senate to be Consuls. The one
loophole created was the position of dictator. In a time of emergency a consul could be named
dictator and take sole, personal control of all of Rome and the armies. The position of dictator
was dangerously powerful and a man could only hold the position for 6 months.
For hundreds of years, from 700-100 BC, the city
of Rome lived peacefully and prosperously in this
way. As the centuries wore on the people forgot
all about Kings and abuses of power. Soon the city
was stretching it borders and conquering
neighboring enemies and becoming fabulously
wealthy. The people loved their leaders that
brought them this power and property. The
leaders began to desire more and more of that
power, property and prestige for themselves
alone and they were less and less likely to share
their winnings with the people or their fellow
noble Senators.
By the year 100 Rome was awash in wealth and vain men vying for sole control of the growing
Empire and a name in history. It turned out that the most ruthless, ambitious and deadly
powerful of these men was none other than Julius Caesar and by the time of his merciless
murder at the hand of his fellow Senators Caesar had brought back the reality the Romans of
old had hated most, an all-powerful King in the name of Dictator for Life. After Caesar’s
murder, his adopted son Octavian crowned himself the first Roman Emperor and ended the
sharing of power between Senate and people for all intents and purposes. From then on,
Rome and her empire would be ruled by one man alone. Another 400 years would pass into
turmoil and exploit
before the last Roman
emperor, a weak teenage
boy, would hand over the
crown to a barbarian
invader sending the
Western Roman Empire
into the chaos of the
Dark Ages and
Feudal Europe.
Rome’s geogRaphy
The
extent of
Roman
influence
and
power
during
the time
of Empire
The City of
Rome was
built on the
banks of
the Tiber
river in
Italy. The hills in and around the city were of great strategic importance because of their height and
position. They have gradually been cut away and built over although they are still evident to the expert
eye.
The valleys were able to be settled because of the famous "Great Drain" - the Cloaca Maxima - and its wide
reaching network of drainage channels. It did much to relegate the rivers and streams underground.
Various sections of the Cloaca Maxima were (and are) wide enough to drive a horse and cart down it for
inspection rounds. The drain itself still
functions to this day.
Another important feature of Rome's
geography is the Tiber River which provided
the city with a ready access to the sea and
trading routes. The Tiber river provided a
hugely significant element in the city's
success in history.....
The location chosen for Rome was so ideal
from a strategic point of view that it had
much to do with the city's future might. Not
only could Ancient Roman ships navigate up
the river to the port by the Tiber island, but
they could do so under the protection of the
surrounding hills.
Plebeians
Rome’s working class, the plebeians had little individual power. Grouped together,
however, they became a Roman mob and had to be handled carefully.
By the first century AD, plebeians comprised a formal class, which held its own meetings,
elected its own officials and kept its own records. The term plebeian referred to all free Roman
citizens who were not members of the patrician, senatorial or equestrian classes.
Working class heroes
Plebeians were average working citizens of Rome – farmers, bakers, builders or craftsmen – who
worked hard to support their families and pay their taxes. Over the course of this period, early
forms of public welfare were established by Titus and Trajan and, in difficult times, plebeians
could ask Roman administrators for help.
We know much less about daily life for the lower classes, such as plebeians. Unlike the more
privileged classes, most plebeians could not write and therefore they could not record and
preserve their experiences.
A glimpse of normal life
This is one reason why archeological sites like the cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum are so
important: they preserve the living spaces, shops, tools, and graffiti of the common people that
would otherwise be lost to history.
Social climbing
Some plebeians, who were doing reasonably well, might try to save enough money to join the
equestrian class. For many, however, life was a daily struggle.
But although individual plebeians had little power, there were a lot of them. In bad times, or
during political unrest, there was always the risk of the Roman ‘mob’ rioting or rebelling against
the upper classes.
Bread and circuses
The Emperor Augustus was well aware of this risk and was keen to keep the poorest plebeians
happy enough and reasonably well fed so that they would not riot. He began the system of state
bribery that the writer Juvenal described as ‘bread and circuses’.
Free grain and controlled food prices meant that plebeians could not starve, while free
entertainment – such as chariot races and gladiators in amphitheaters and the Circus Maximus –
meant that they would not get bored and restless. Bribery it may have been, but it often
worked.
The Emperor and Patricians
Sitting at the top of Roman society were the emperor and the patrician classes.
Although they enjoyed fabulous wealth, power and privilege, these perks came at a price. As
Rome’s leaders, they couldn’t avoid its dangerous power struggles.
The Emperor
As absolute ruler of Rome and its enormous empire, the emperor and his family lived in suitable
style. They stayed at the best villas, ate the finest food and dressed in only the most magnificent
clothes.
Life was luxurious, extravagant and indulgent – the emperor’s family could spend their days
enjoying their favorite pastimes, like music, poetry, hunting and horse racing.
Still, it was not an easy life. Succession to the emperor was not strictly hereditary: the throne
could pass to brothers, stepsons or even favored courtiers and any heir had to be approved by
the Senate.
As a result, royal palaces were constantly filled with political intrigue. Potential heirs and their
families always needed to be pushing their name, making their claim and hustling for position
and constantly surviving poisonings, murders and threats.
Patricians
Ranked just below the emperor and his relatives, the patrician families dominated Rome and its
empire. The word “patrician” comes from the Latin “patres”, meaning “fathers”, and these
families provided the empire’s political, religious, and military leadership.
Most patricians were wealthy landowners from old families, but the class was open to a chosen
few who had been deliberately promoted by the emperor.
Boys born into a patrician family would receive an extensive education, usually from a private
tutor. This would focus on the subjects a sophisticated noble would be expected to know, as well
as some required for his future career in the Senate. Poetry and literature, history and
geography, some mythology and important languages – like Greek – would all be taught. They
did not need to learn skills though, Patricians did not lower themselves to do any kind of work.
Work was for the lower classes.
The Romans also considered lessons in public speaking and the law to be essential parts of a
good education. Most young patrician men would go on to careers in politics and government,
for which these two subjects were crucial. However, the patrician families were also expected to
help continue the ancient priesthoods.
Apart from the plots and politics, however, members of both royal and patrician families faced
little work or real responsibility and were blessed with a relatively charmed life – certainly
compared to the other inhabitants of Rome at the time.
The Senators
Senators in the first century AD held much less power than their predecessors,
although the Senate still had the right to confer the title of emperor.
This alone ensured that the Senate and its members remained relevant and important.
The Roman Senate started life as an advisory council, filled entirely with patricians. In the last
two centuries of the republic, however, it had become much more powerful and a major player
in politics and government.
Climbing the ladder
Roman Patrcian men spent their lives working toward the prize of Senator. The first stop on the
ladder was to become a Quaestor. Only Roman citizens aged 25 or over, with both military and
administrative experience, could become quaestors. Potential candidates were nominated by the
emperor and the elections were merely a formality.
Once elected, an ambitious senator would progress through the different ranks of magistrates.
These included the quaestorship, the aedileship, the praetorship and, ultimately, the consulship
and the position held at any one time determined his senatorial rank.
Privileges of office
In addition to their political and judicial powers, senators had special privileges. They alone could
hold the highest official offices and judgeships in criminal and civil courts. In addition, senators
enjoyed reserved seating at public ceremonies and games, and they alone had the honor of
wearing the ‘latus clavus’ – the purple striped toga.
New ruler, new rules
Emperor Augustus began a new rule that senators had to have property worth 1,000,000
sesterces (Roman coins). Senators were also not allowed to become directly involved in business
– particularly shipping or government contracts where there might be a conflict of interest.
Given they were also unpaid, this meant that only a small percentage of the population could
afford to become deeply involved in politics.
During the empire, the senate was at the head of the government bureaucracy and was a law
court. The emperor held the title of Princeps Senatus, and could appoint new senators, summon
and preside over Senate discussions, and propose legislation.
The Senate therefore took its lead from the emperor and, in most important areas, was only an
advisory body. However, it still had the right to confer the title of emperor and this power alone
meant that the Senate and its members remained relevant and important, even during the worst
years of the first century.
Equestrians
Ranking immediately below senators, equestrians became an important human
resource, whose work underpinned the smooth running of the Roman Empire.
As its name suggests, the equestrian class was originally composed of the Roman cavalry. In
218 BC, equestrians took on more commercial roles when Lex Claudia prevented Senators from
becoming involved in trade or business.
The business classes
As a result, many in the equestrian class became wealthy businessmen. Many were tax
collectors, bankers, miners and exporters, while others governed lucrative public contracts, such
as those awarded to build roads or aqueducts.
The Emperor Augustus recognized the importance of the equestrians, reorganized them into a
military class and encouraged others to join. Now Roman citizens of any social level could
become equestrians, as long as they were of good reputation, in good health and owned at least
400,000 sesterces (Roman coins).
Running the empire
By using equestrians in responsible positions in government, Augustus founded the imperial civil
service, which equestrians would later head. Their business background made them particularly
suited for positions in the financial administration of the provinces. Over the following decades,
the number of equestrians increased dramatically, until there were thousands throughout the
empire.
By the time of Claudius, equestrians could reasonably expect a good career. After serving in the
army as an officer, a potential equestrian might become a procurator – an agent of the emperor.
He could then become a prefect, or government administrator, at home or abroad. Prefects had
responsibilities as varied as the fire brigade, grain supply, and foreign provinces, such as Egypt.
Opportunity knocks
Equestrians could rise to the rank of senator. The senatorial class found it difficult to supply
enough men of its own, so they recruited from the equestrian class. Also, sons of senators were
automatically classified as equestrians until they had gained the necessary age, experience and
office.
Because equestrians did not have to be Roman or Italian by birth, this opened up the ranks of
senators to non-Italians. When Vespasian increased the number of senators, the popularity of
the equestrian class meant that the Senate now included citizens born in provinces such as Gaul
and Spain. It was a sign that talented men from all over the empire could hold important office.
Before long, the Emperor Trajan would be in power and, for the first time, Rome would be ruled
by a man born abroad.
Slaves
Slavery in ancient Rome differed from its modern forms in that it was not based on
race.
But like modern slavery, it was an abusive and degrading institution. Cruelty was commonplace.
Slavery had a long history in the ancient world and was practiced in Ancient Egypt and Greece,
as well as Rome. Most slaves during the Roman Empire were foreigners and, unlike in modern
times, Roman slavery was not based on race.
Slaves in Rome might include prisoners of war, sailors captured and sold by pirates, or slaves
bought outside Roman territory. In hard times, it was not uncommon for desperate Roman
citizens to raise money by selling their children into slavery.
Life as a slave
All slaves and their families were the property of their owners, who could sell or rent them out at
any time. Their lives were harsh. Slaves were often whipped, branded or cruelly mistreated.
Their owners could also kill them for any reason, and would face no punishment.
Essential labor
Slaves worked everywhere – in private households, in mines and factories, and on farms. They
also worked for city governments on engineering projects such as roads, aqueducts and
buildings. As a result, they merged easily into the population.
In fact, slaves looked so similar to Roman citizens that the Senate once considered a plan to
make them wear special clothing so that they could be identified at a glance. The idea was
rejected because the Senate feared that, if slaves saw how many of them were working in
Rome, they might be tempted to join forces and rebel.
Manumission
Another difference between Roman slavery and its more modern variety was manumission – the
ability of slaves to be freed. Roman owners freed their slaves in considerable numbers: some
freed them outright, while others allowed them to buy their own freedom. The prospect of
possible freedom through manumission encouraged most slaves to be obedient and hard
working.
Formal manumission was performed by a magistrate and gave freed men full Roman citizenship.
The one exception was that they were not allowed to hold office. However, the law gave any
children born to freedmen, after formal manumission, full rights of citizenship, including the right
to hold office.
Informal manumission gave fewer rights. Slaves freed informally did not become citizens and
any property or wealth they accumulated reverted to their former owners when they died.
Once freed, former slaves could work in the same jobs as plebeians – as craftsmen, midwives or
traders. Some even became wealthy. However, Rome’s rigid society attached importance to
social status and even successful freedmen usually found the stigma of slavery hard to overcome
– the degradation lasted well beyond the slavery itself.
Soldiers
The Roman Army was one of the most successful in the history of the world and its
soldiers were rightly feared for their training, discipline and stamina. As a result, the
army was a major player in Roman politics and maintaining its loyalty was an essential
task for any Emperor.
The Roman legions
The Roman Empire was created and controlled by its soldiers. At the core of the army were its
legions, which were without equal in their training, discipline and fighting ability. The minimum
term of service for a soldier during the first century AD was twenty years.
Weapons and armor
Each legionnaire (or 'miles') carried a short sword, called a gladius. This was his main weapon.
He also carried a 'pilum' (javelin), a helmet, armor, shield and a pack with supplies. Soldiers
were rigorously trained to march long distances, fight in precise formations, and kill expertly
with all the weapons they carried.
The toughest postings for soldiers were those at the frontiers of the Roman Empire, where
legionnaires never had enough supplies, faced hostile local tribes and had to endure tedious
routines.
When they retired, every legionnaire was entitled to a plot of land to farm. Soldiers looked
forward to this generous reward for a lifetime of loyal service. Despite the hardships, many who
had been posted to Britain settled there, taking plots of land near remote Roman forts.
Mutiny
Rome was not always able to honor the important promise of land. In 14 AD, just after Tiberius
had become emperor, a mutiny broke out among legions in central Europe. Soldiers complained
that Rome was not keeping to the spirit of its promise.
The length of service, combined with the trials of military life, meant that soldiers developed
deep camaraderie and these complaints struck home with other soldiers. The mutiny gained
momentum: some soldiers began showing their scars; others looted and killed their officers.
A serious army mutiny spelled potential disaster for any emperor, whose power, both at home
and abroad, was based on his control of the army.
As future Emperors would discover, while soldiers were loyal to their emperor, this loyalty was
nothing compared to the loyalty felt by many legions to their commanders. Holding the
monopoly on force that underpinned empire and emperor, the army was always politically
important. A discontented army was a powerful enemy and a popular commander was a
potential threat.
Women
Defined by the men in their lives, women in ancient Rome were valued mainly as wives
and mothers. Although some were allowed more freedom than others, there was
always a limit, even for the daughter of an emperor.
Not much information exists about Roman women in the first century. Women were not allowed
to be active in politics, so nobody wrote about them. Neither were they taught how to write, so
they could not tell their own stories.
Legal rights
We do know a little, however. Unlike society in ancient Egypt, Rome did not regard women as
equal to men before the law. They received only a basic education, if any at all, and were
subject to the authority of a man. Traditionally, this was their father before marriage. At that
point, authority switched to their husband, who also had the legal rights over their children.
However, by the first century AD women had much more freedom to manage their own business
and financial affairs. Unless she had married "in manu" (in her husband’s control, which
conferred the bride and all her property onto the groom and his family) a woman could own,
inherit and dispose of property.
A woman’s work
In reality, the degree of freedom a woman enjoyed depended largely on her wealth and social
status. A few women ran their own businesses – one woman was a lamp-maker – or had careers
as midwives, hairdressers or doctors, but these were rare.
On the other hand, female slaves were common and filled a huge variety of roles, from ladies’
maids to farm workers, and even gladiators.
Wealthy widows, subject to no man’s authority, were independent. Other wealthy women chose
to become priestesses, of which the most important were the Vestal Virgins.
Influence, not power
However wealthy they were, because they could not vote or stand for office, women had no
formal role in public life. In reality, wives or close relatives of prominent men could have political
influence behind the scenes and exert real, albeit informal, power.
In public, though, women were expected to play their traditional role in the household. They
were responsible for spinning and weaving yarn and making clothes. These were usually made
from wool or linen, although wealthy women (whose servants made their clothes) often dressed
in expensive, imported fabrics, like Chinese silk or Indian cotton.
Women were expected to be the dignified wife and the good mother and, while these rules could
be bent, they couldn’t be broken.
Name_________________________
Date_________PD___
Social Stratification
Ancient Rome
The last remains of the Western Roman Empire disappeared into history over a thousand years ago. But
this empire, the last and arguably the greatest of the Ancient Empires was the inspiration for our own.
Many things have changed since 472AD; technologies, knowledge, and the value of human life, but the
Ancient Roman republic was still the main blueprint when George Washington and his revolutionary peers
began designing their American Dream.
Task:
Create a social stratification pyramid for the Ancient Roman Empire using the information included in this
packet
Process:
-
As a group - Read the story of Rome and become familiar with its general history and geography
Individuals - Assign each group member to read and become the expert on each of the social strata
in the Roman pyramid
Put all of the people and their titles where they belong on a large pyramid on a poster paper along
with at least 3 facts for each strata on the pyramid
Complete the T-Chart in the assignment packet
Final Product:
~ Poster with completed Social Pyramid
~ T-Chart in Social Stratification packet
Grading Rubric
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Participation – working productively with the group
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Content – all content is included in poster
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Creativity & Style – Aesthetically appealing and showing effort